Traditional methods of vaccine production
The first human Vaccines against viruses were based using weaker or attenuated viruses to generate immunity. The smallpox vaccine used cowpox, a poxvirus that was similar enough to smallpox to protect against it but usually didn’t cause serious illness. Rabies was the first virus attenuated in a lab to create a vaccine for humans.
Egg-Based Vaccines
Over the last 60 years, seasonal flu vaccines have been manufactured using fertilized embryonic eggs. Using this method, it takes about four months to produce a batch of vaccines for a new strain of influenza virus; from the moment the new influenza virus’ culture becomes available for vaccine manufacturing. The advantages of using embryonic eggs to manufacture seasonal flu vaccines are that the safety and effectiveness of the vaccines produced have been well established.
Cell-Based Vaccines
Since the mid 1990’s, newer vaccine manufacturing methods were developed. The cell-based vaccine manufacturing process is one of such methods. The cell-based vaccine manufacturing process uses cells from mammals to culture the influenza virus for vaccine production. Various pharmaceutical companies use different sources of mammalian cell cultures for the vaccine manufacturing process. Baxter Healthcare uses cells extracted from the kidney of the African Green Monkey while companies such as Solvay Biologicals and Novartis Vaccines use kidney cells from canines to produce seasonal flu vaccines.
Production of DPT vaccine
DPT is a class of combination vaccines against three infectious diseases in humans: diphtheria, pertussis (whooping cough), and tetanus. The vaccine components include diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and killed whole cells of the bacterium that causes pertussis.
Although different combinations may contain the same toxoids or antigens each vaccine may differ substantially according to the toxoid or antigen dose, number of pertussis components (for acellular vaccines), method of purification and inactivation of the toxins and incorporation of adjuvants and excipients. All of these factors may have an impact on the reactogenicity of different DTP vaccine combinations.
Diphtheria and Tetanus (DT and Td) toxoid combination: DT vaccine used for primary immunisation and boosting in children contains 6.7-25Lf of diphtheria toxoid and 5 – 7.5 Lf of tetanus toxoid per dose. An adult combination, Td, is used for boosting and primary immunisation in adolescents and adults and contains a lower dose of diphtheria (less than 2 Lf/dose) but a similar dose of tetanus toxoid.
Diphtheria, Tetanus and Pertussis (DTP) combinations: Initial DTP combination preparations contained whole-cell pertussis antigens. Concern due to common occurrence of minor local reactions and less common severe reactions of whole-cell pertussis led to the development of acellular vaccines and clinical trials demonstrating their efficacy in the 1980’s. Multiple acellular pertussis vaccines are now available and are referred to by the number of acellular antigen components that they contain. Whole-cell pertussis vaccine remains a safe, inexpensive and effective vaccine which is used in many countries because whole cell vaccines that generate a higher level of antibody to pertussis toxin are associated with higher vaccine efficacy.
DTP with other vaccine antigen combinations: There are many vaccine formulations containing diphtheria and tetanus toxoids and whole cell or acellular pertussis antigens in combination with Haemophilus influenzae type b, hepatitis B and/or inactivated polio virus to produce quadrivalent, pentavalent and hexavalent combination vaccines.
Rabies vaccine
Pre-exposure vaccination should be offered to people at high risk of exposure to rabies, such as laboratory staff working with rabies virus, veterinarians, animal handlers and wildlife officers, and other individuals living in or travelling to countries or areas at risk. Travellers with extensive outdoor exposure in rural areas – such as might occur while running, bicycling, hiking, camping, backpacking, etc. – may be at risk, even if the duration of travel is short. Preexposure vaccination is advisable for children living in or visiting countries or areas at risk, where they provide an easy target for rabid animals. Pre-exposure vaccination is also recommended for individuals travelling to isolated areas or to areas where immediate access to appropriate medical care is limited or to countries where modern rabies vaccines are in short supply and locally available rabies vaccines might be unsafe and/or ineffective.
Pre-exposure rabies vaccination consists of three full intramuscular (i.m.) doses of cell-culture- or embryonated-egg-based vaccine given on days 0, 7 and 21 or 28 (a few days’ variation in the timing is not important). For adults, the vaccine should always be administered in the deltoid area of the arm; for young children (under 1 year of age), the anterolateral area of the thigh is recommended. Rabies vaccine should never be administered in the gluteal area: administration in this manner will result in lower neutralizing antibody titres.
To reduce the cost of cell-derived vaccines for pre-exposure rabies vaccination, intradermal (i.d.) vaccination in 0.1-ml volumes on days 0, 7 and either 21 or 28 may be considered. This method of administration is an acceptable alternative to the standard intramuscular administration, but it is technically more demanding and requires appropriate staff training and qualified medical supervision. Concurrent use of chloroquine can reduce the antibody response to intradermal application of cell-culture rabies vaccines. People who are currently receiving malaria prophylaxis or who are unable to complete the entire three-dose pre-exposure series before starting malarial prophylaxis should therefore receive pre-exposure vaccination by the intramuscular route.
Periodic booster injections are not recommended for general travellers. However, in the event of exposure through the bite or scratch of an animal known or suspected to be rabid, individuals who have previously received a complete series of pre- or post-exposure rabies vaccine (with cell-culture or embryonated-egg vaccine) should receive two booster doses of vaccine. Ideally, the first dose should be administered on the day of exposure and the second 3 days later. This should be combined with thorough wound treatment (see “Post-exposure prophylaxis”, below). Rabies immunoglobulin is not required for patients who have previously received a complete vaccination series.,
Vaccines are one of the most important medical interventions in history. They have helped to eradicate diseases like smallpox and polio, and they have made other diseases like measles and mumps much less common. Vaccines work by stimulating the body’s immune system to produce antibodies that protect against a particular disease.
There are two main types of vaccines: inactivated vaccines and live attenuated vaccines. Inactivated vaccines contain killed or weakened versions of the virus or bacteria that causes the disease. Live attenuated vaccines contain live but weakened versions of the virus or bacteria.
DPT vaccine is a combination vaccine that protects against three diseases: diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis. Diphtheria is a serious respiratory infection that can cause paralysis. Tetanus is a muscle infection that can cause lockjaw. Pertussis is a respiratory infection that can cause coughing fits that can make it difficult to breathe.
DPT vaccine is made from inactivated whole-cell pertussis bacteria. Whole-cell vaccines contain all of the parts of the bacteria, including the parts that can cause the disease. This can make whole-cell vaccines more likely to cause side effects, such as fever and soreness at the injection site.
Acellular pertussis vaccine is a newer type of pertussis vaccine that contains only the parts of the bacteria that are necessary to stimulate the immune system. Acellular pertussis vaccines are less likely to cause side effects than whole-cell pertussis vaccines.
Rabies vaccine is a vaccine that protects against rabies. Rabies is a viral disease that can be fatal if not treated. It is spread through the bite of an infected animal, usually a dog, cat, or bat.
Rabies vaccine is made from inactivated whole-cell rabies virus. Inactivated vaccines contain killed versions of the virus. This makes them less likely to cause side effects than live attenuated vaccines.
Live attenuated rabies vaccine is a newer type of rabies vaccine that contains live but weakened versions of the virus. Live attenuated vaccines are more likely to cause side effects than inactivated vaccines, but they may provide better protection against rabies.
Vaccines are an important part of public Health. They help to protect people from diseases that can be serious or even fatal. Vaccines are safe and effective, and they have helped to save millions of lives.
Inactivated whole-cell vaccine
Inactivated whole-cell vaccines are made from whole cells of the pathogen that causes the disease. The cells are killed using heat, chemicals, or radiation. This makes them unable to cause the disease, but they can still stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies.
Inactivated whole-cell vaccines are often used to protect against diseases that are caused by bacteria. Examples of inactivated whole-cell vaccines include the DPT vaccine, which protects against diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis; the MMR vaccine, which protects against measles, mumps, and rubella; and the typhoid vaccine.
Inactivated whole-cell vaccines can cause side effects, such as fever, soreness at the injection site, and headache. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own. In rare cases, inactivated whole-cell vaccines can cause more serious side effects, such as allergic reactions.
Acellular pertussis vaccine
Acellular pertussis vaccines are made from parts of the pertussis bacterium. These parts are not able to cause the disease, but they can still stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies.
Acellular pertussis vaccines are often used to protect against pertussis, also known as whooping cough. Pertussis is a serious respiratory infection that can cause coughing fits that can make it difficult to breathe.
Acellular pertussis vaccines are generally considered to be safer than inactivated whole-cell pertussis vaccines. They are less likely to cause side effects, such as fever and soreness at the injection site.
Live attenuated vaccine
Live attenuated vaccines are made from live but weakened versions of the pathogen that causes the disease. These weakened versions of the pathogen are not able to cause the disease, but they can still stimulate the immune system to produce antibodies.
Live attenuated vaccines are often used to protect against diseases that are caused by viruses. Examples of live attenuated vaccines include the measles vaccine, the mumps vaccine, the rubella vaccine, and the chickenpox vaccine.
Live attenuated vaccines can cause side effects, such as fever, rash, and joint pain. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own. In rare cases, live attenuated vaccines can cause more serious side effects, such as allergic reactions.
What is a vaccine?
A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular disease. A vaccine typically contains an agent that resembles a disease-causing microorganism and is often made from weakened or inactivated forms of the microbe, its toxins, or one of its surface proteins. The agent stimulates the body’s immune system to recognize the microbe, destroy it, and remember it so that the body can produce antibodies to protect itself from future infection.
How do vaccines work?
Vaccines work by stimulating the body’s immune system to produce antibodies that protect against a particular disease. When a person is vaccinated, the body’s immune system responds to the vaccine by producing antibodies that specifically target the disease-causing microbe. These antibodies remain in the body for many years, providing protection against future infection.
What are the benefits of vaccines?
Vaccines are one of the most important public health tools we have to protect people from disease. Vaccines have helped to prevent millions of deaths from diseases such as polio, measles, and rubella. They have also helped to control and even eliminate diseases such as smallpox.
What are the risks of vaccines?
Like any medical treatment, vaccines can have side effects. However, the risks of vaccines are very rare and are usually mild. The benefits of vaccines far outweigh the risks.
What are some common side effects of vaccines?
Some common side effects of vaccines include pain, redness, and swelling at the injection site. These side effects are usually mild and go away on their own within a few days. Other possible side effects include fever, headache, and muscle aches. These side effects are also usually mild and go away on their own within a few days.
What should I do if I have a side effect from a vaccine?
If you have a side effect from a vaccine, you should contact your doctor. Your doctor can help you to determine if the side effect is serious and if you need any treatment.
What are some contraindications to vaccination?
There are some medical conditions that can make vaccination unsafe. For example, people who are allergic to any component of a vaccine should not receive that vaccine. People who are severely ill should also not receive certain vaccines. If you have any questions about whether you should be vaccinated, you should talk to your doctor.
What are some myths about vaccines?
There are many myths about vaccines. Some people believe that vaccines cause autism. However, there is no scientific evidence to support this claim. Vaccines are safe and effective, and they are one of the best ways to protect yourself and your family from disease.
Where can I get more information about vaccines?
You can get more information about vaccines from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). The CDC website has a wealth of information about vaccines, including vaccine schedules, side effects, and contraindications. You can also talk to your doctor about vaccines.
Which of the following is not a traditional method of vaccine production?
(A) Live attenuated vaccines
(B) Inactivated vaccines
(C) Subunit vaccines
(D) Recombinant vaccinesWhich of the following vaccines is an example of a live attenuated vaccine?
(A) MMR vaccine
(B) Polio vaccine
(C) DPT vaccine
(D) Rabies vaccineWhich of the following vaccines is an example of an inactivated vaccine?
(A) MMR vaccine
(B) Polio vaccine
(C) DPT vaccine
(D) Rabies vaccineWhich of the following vaccines is an example of a subunit vaccine?
(A) Hepatitis B vaccine
(B) Influenza vaccine
(C) Pneumococcal vaccine
(D) Rotavirus vaccineWhich of the following vaccines is an example of a recombinant vaccine?
(A) Hepatitis B vaccine
(B) Influenza vaccine
(C) Pneumococcal vaccine
(D) Rotavirus vaccineWhich of the following is a disadvantage of live attenuated vaccines?
(A) They can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(B) They can revert to a virulent form.
(C) They require cold storage.
(D) They are not as effective as inactivated vaccines.Which of the following is a disadvantage of inactivated vaccines?
(A) They can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(B) They can revert to a virulent form.
(C) They require cold storage.
(D) They are not as effective as live attenuated vaccines.Which of the following is a disadvantage of subunit vaccines?
(A) They can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(B) They can revert to a virulent form.
(C) They require cold storage.
(D) They are not as effective as live attenuated or inactivated vaccines.Which of the following is a disadvantage of recombinant vaccines?
(A) They can cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(B) They can revert to a virulent form.
(C) They require cold storage.
(D) They are not as effective as live attenuated, inactivated, or subunit vaccines.Which of the following is an advantage of live attenuated vaccines?
(A) They are more effective than inactivated vaccines.
(B) They do not require cold storage.
(C) They are less likely to cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(D) They are less likely to revert to a virulent form.Which of the following is an advantage of inactivated vaccines?
(A) They are more effective than live attenuated vaccines.
(B) They do not require cold storage.
(C) They are less likely to cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(D) They are less likely to revert to a virulent form.Which of the following is an advantage of subunit vaccines?
(A) They are more effective than live attenuated and inactivated vaccines.
(B) They do not require cold storage.
(C) They are less likely to cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(D) They are less likely to revert to a virulent form.Which of the following is an advantage of recombinant vaccines?
(A) They are more effective than live attenuated, inactivated, and subunit vaccines.
(B) They do not require cold storage.
(C) They are less likely to cause disease in immunocompromised individuals.
(D) They are less likely to revert to a virulent form.Which of the following is the most common type of vaccine used today?
(A) Live attenuated vaccine
(B) Inactivated vaccine
(C) Subunit vaccine
(D) Recombinant vaccineWhich of the following is the least common type of vaccine used today?
(A) Live attenuated vaccine
(B) Inactivated vaccine
(C) Subunit vaccine
(D) Recombinant vaccine