TRADE PATTERN

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INTRODUCTION

Among several features of Globalization/”>Globalization-3/”>Globalization, one relates to increasing interactions among nations and removal of barriers to facilitate movement of goods, capital, labour and technology. It is a process that renders various activities and aspiration worldwide in scope or application. As a part of this process of increasing integration of the world, many countries have adopted Economic Reforms and Liberalization-2/”>Liberalization in their own ways.

The rapid integration of Brazil, Russia, India, China and South Africa into the world market was an important element of globalization. Trade is the primary manifestation of this increasing integration and changing organizational structure of the global economy which has been much more extensive than in the past involving more countries & regions. In the similar way, it is also much more intensive as Foreign Trade became a key component of most countries economic activities. Over the years emerging economies like China, India, Brazil, Mexico, Russia and South Africa have made their presence felt in the global market and have come forth as new key drivers of global Growth.

Among other emerging countries, China and India are the fastest growing economies. India with its distinct development strategy has the potential to influence economic activities of the global economy in the years to come. With this background, this study is an exploratory attempt to measure the quantum leap in export and import to India, and to identify changes in commodity composition and regional patterns of inflows and outflows of merchandise trade. The analysis pertains to four points of time 1990, 1995, 2000 and 2005. Some of the major findings of the study are as follows: (i) Manufacturing sector has increased its share vis-̂-vis other tradable sectors; (ii) Specialization of production and diversification of consumption; (iii) Indian trade is gradually moving away from low value-added product

TRADE Infrastructure-2/”>INFRASTRUCTURE FOR EXPORT SCHEME (TIES)

Objectives

To enhance export competitiveness by bridging gaps in export infrastructure, creating focused export infrastructure, first mile and last mile connectivity for export-oriented projects and addressing quality and certification measures.

Salient features

It would provide financial assistance for setting up and upgradation of existing infrastructure with export linkages like border haats, cold chains, dry Ports etc.
The Central and State Agencies, including Export Promotion Councils, Commodities Boards, SEZ Authorities and Apex Trade Bodies recognised under the EXIM policy of Government of India; are eligible for financial support under this scheme.
The Central Government funding will be in the form of grant-in-aid, normally not more than the Equity being put in by the implementing agency or 50% of the total equity in the project. (In case of projects located in North Eastern States and Himalayan States including J&K, this grant can be upto 80% of the total equity).

MERCHANDISE EXPORTS FROM INDIA SCHEME

It is an export promotion scheme launched under the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) 2015-20.
It has replaced 5 different schemes of earlier FTP (Focus Product Scheme, Market Linked Focus Product Scheme, Focus Market Scheme, Agri. Infrastructure Incentive Scrip, Vishesh Krishi and Gram Udyog Yojana) for rewarding merchandise exports which had varying conditions (sector specific or actual user only) attached to their use.
Now there would be no conditionality attached to the scrips issued under the scheme.

Service Exports from India Scheme (SEIS)

It was launched under the Foreign Trade Policy (FTP), 2015-20 replacing the earlier scheme ‘Served from India Scheme’.
SEIS shall apply to `Service Providers’ located in India’ instead of `Indian Service Providers’. Thus, SEIS provides for rewards to all Service providers of notified Services, who are providing services from India, regardless of the constitution or profile of the service provider.

TRENDS

In the age of globalisation, India is new entrant to expand international trend. In 1991, the government initiated some changes in its strategy on trade, foreign Investment, Tariffs and Taxes under the name of “New Economic Reforms”. Indian government mainly concentrated on reforms on Liberalization, openness and export sponsorship activity. It is witnessed that foreign Trade of India has considerably revolutionized export in the Post reforms period. Trade Volume increased and the composition of exports has undergone several noteworthy changes. In Post – reform Period, the major provider to export’s growth has been the manufacturing sector.
Though India has steadily opened up its wealth, its tariffs are high as compared with other countries, and its conjecture norms are still restricted. Foreign trade in India in legal term is the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulation) Act, 1992. The Act provide with the development and regulation of foreign trade by assisting imports into, and supplementing exports from India.
To fulfil the requirements of the Act, the government may make necessities for assisting and controlling foreign trade, may forbid, confine and regulate exports and imports, in all or particular cases as well as subject them to exclusion. Government is endorsed to devise and declare an export and import policy and also amend the same from time to time, by notification in the Official Gazette, and is also authoritative to appoint a ‘Director General of Foreign Trade’ for the purpose of the Act, including formulation and accomplishment of the export-import policy.

The 15X15 Matrix Strategies was introduced in 1995 and major aim of this policy was to recognize market diversification and commodity diversification. When reviewed the success of this, it represented that the share of the total top 15 product groups exported to the top 15 market destinations declined from 71% in 1996-97 to 66% in 2000-01 in respect of the total export of these 15 product groups for all destinations taken together. It clearly showed the market diversification for these product groups.

The major items of India’s exports controlled in the Matrix continue to remain the same during 2000 – 01 such as Gems and Jewellery, RMG Cotton including accessories and Cotton Yarn, Fabrics and Made Ups. The top three destinations changed from US, UK and Japan to US, Hong Kong and UAE. Another strategy was Focus LAC which was introduced in 1997 in order to enhance exports of chosen products such as Textiles including RMG, Engineering goods and Chemical products to Latin American Region. The highest growth rate of exports to this region was accomplished during period of 2000-01 when the value of exports was high of US$ 982 million.
Though the current trade between LAC and India is still low, there is possibility to increase two-way trade between India and the LAC region. It is observed from the export strategies of previous time is that the composition, competitiveness and complexion of world products trade are changing rapidly and there is a need to review the market constantly for any medium term export strategy to achieve a higher share of global exports on a sustainable basis. The main concentration of previous foreign trade strategies was on the existing export products of India.

Nonetheless, presently, the government has made policy on trade and investment policy that has established an obvious change from protecting ‘producers’ to benefiting ‘consumers’. It is reflected in its foreign trade strategy of India for 2004/09 which indicated that “for India to become a major player in world trade we have also to make possible those imports which are required to stimulate our economy”. With numerous economic alterations, globalisation of the Indian economy has been the foremost factor to formulate the trade policies.

The announcement of a new Foreign Trade Policy of India for a five year period of 2004-09, substituting until now taxonomy of EXIM Policy by Foreign Trade Policy is major step in the development of foreign trade policy. This policy made the overall development of India’s foreign trade and offers guidelines for the development of this sector. Main purpose of the Exim Policy is to hasten the economy from low level of economic activities to high level of economic activities by making it a globally oriented energetic economy and to derive maximum benefits from expanding global market opportunities, to encourage continued economic growth by providing access to essential raw materials, intermediates, components, consumables and Capital Goods required for augmenting production, to boost the techno local strength and efficiency of Indian agriculture, Industry and services, thereby, improving their competitiveness, to generate new EMPLOYMENT and opportunities and encourage the attainment of internationally accepted standards of quality.
Finally, this policy provides quality consumer products at reasonable prices. A vibrant export-led growth strategy of doubling India’s share in global commodities trade with an attention on the sectors having prospects for export development and potential for employment generation, represent the main factor of the policy. These activities augment India’s international competitiveness and assist in increasing the suitability of Indian exports. The trade policy recognizes major strategies, outlines export incentives, and also focus on issues relating to institutional support including SIMPLIFICATION of procedures relating to export activities.
India is now violently pushing for a more moderate global trade management, especially in services. It has understood a Leadership role among developing nations in global trade debates, and played a decisive part in the Doha negotiations. With economic reforms, globalisation of the Indian economy has been the major factor in devising the foreign trade policy of India.

Challenges

The objective of the Foreign Trade Policy is to twofold India Percentage share of global merchandise trade and to act as an effectual instrument of economic growth by giving a thrust to employment generation, especially in semi-urban and rural areas. The growth performance of exports has been a result of watchful effort of the Government to lessen transaction costs and assist trade. The guidelines of the Foreign Trade Policy (2004-09) for a five year period clearly articulate objectives, strategies and policy initiatives that has been involved in putting exports on a higher growth line.
There are numerous challenges and issues in foreign trade. These include burden of export promotion schemes, danger of circular trading, and risk of importing outdated machinery. Sometimes policy fails to take a holistic view of trade issues. Other issue is relative importance of the home market, the nature or the degree of State intervention and recessionary conditions in the global market. India’s exports have suffered due to structural constraints operating both on the demand and supply side.
On the demand side exports have continued to undergone the problems of adverse world trading Environment, protectionist sentiments in the developed countries in the guise of technical standards, environmental and social concerns and tariff differentials in imports by the developed countries. At the supply end, the factors that have constrained exports from India include infrastructure constraints, high transaction costs, inflexibilities in labour laws, quality problems, constraints in attracting FDI in the export sector, etc

Conclusion

It is summarized that foreign trade has significant function in the fiscal development of any nation. India has made strong foreign trade policies and reformed these from time to time with the process of globalisation and liberalization. Since 1991, India’s foreign trade considerably transformed. India’s major exports include manufacturing and engineering goods. India has good trading relations with all developed countries in the world. More than fifty percent of India’s total export trade is with Asia and ASEAN region and about sixty percent of India’s total imports is with the same countries. India’s wealth previously was agricultural economy.

India’s major requirement use to be food grains and other goods in import with fast industrialization, the composition of India’s imports goods changed and needed chemicals, Fertilizers and machinery which were required to meet the developmental requirements of country. In the composition of export; country sells agricultural products such as tea, spices, and other raw materials. However, with the industrialization of the financial system, compositions of exports changed. Currently, India exports products such as machinery chemicals and marine products. This may enhance the fiscal condition of India.

Trade is the exchange of goods and services between two or more parties. It can take place on a small scale, such as when a farmer sells their produce at a local market, or on a large scale, such as when countries trade goods and services with each other.

Trade patterns are the ways in which goods and services are traded between countries. They can be affected by a number of factors, including the cost of production, the availability of Resources, and the demand for goods and services.

There are a number of different types of trade patterns. One type is bilateral trade, which is trade between two countries. Another type is multilateral trade, which is trade between more than two countries. Trade can also be classified as either export or import. Export is the sale of goods and services to another country, while import is the purchase of goods and services from another country.

Trade patterns can have a significant impact on the economies of countries. For example, countries that export a lot of goods and services tend to have strong economies. Countries that import a lot of goods and services, on the other hand, may have weaker economies.

There are a number of different theories about why countries trade with each other. One theory is that countries trade because they have different comparative advantages. Comparative advantage is the ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country. For example, if a country has a lot of land and a lot of people who are good at farming, it may have a comparative advantage in agriculture.

Another theory about why countries trade is that they do so in order to increase their economic efficiency. Economic efficiency is the ability to produce goods and services at the lowest possible cost. When countries trade with each other, they can specialize in producing the goods and services that they are best at producing. This can lead to lower costs and higher profits for both countries.

Trade can also have a number of other benefits. For example, it can lead to increased competition, which can drive down prices and improve quality. It can also lead to the spread of new technologies and ideas.

However, trade can also have some negative effects. For example, it can lead to job losses in some industries. It can also lead to environmental problems, such as pollution.

Overall, trade is a complex issue with both positive and negative effects. It is important to weigh the costs and benefits of trade before making decisions about whether or not to engage in it.

Here are some additional details on the subtopics listed above:

Balance of Trade: The balance of trade is the difference between the value of a country’s exports and the value of its imports. A country has a trade surplus if its exports are worth more than its imports, and a Trade Deficit if its imports are worth more than its exports.
Balance of Payments: The balance of payments is a record of all the economic transactions between a country and the rest of the world. It includes the balance of trade, as well as other things such as investment income and foreign aid.
Bilateral trade: Bilateral trade is trade between two countries. It is often easier to negotiate trade agreements between two countries than between more than two countries.
Comparative advantage: Comparative advantage is the ability to produce a good or service at a lower opportunity cost than another country. For example, if a country has a lot of land and a lot of people who are good at farming, it may have a comparative advantage in agriculture.
Currency exchange rate: The currency exchange rate is the price of one currency in terms of another. It is determined by supply and demand.
Customs Union: A customs union is a group of countries that have agreed to remove all tariffs and other trade barriers between themselves.
Economic integration: Economic integration is the process of countries becoming more closely linked economically. It can take place through trade agreements, investment, and other means.
Export: Export is the sale of goods and services to another country.
Free trade: Free trade is the absence of government restrictions on trade. It allows countries to specialize in producing the goods and services that they are best at producing.
Free Trade Agreement: A free trade agreement is an agreement between two or more countries to reduce or eliminate trade barriers.
Import: Import is the purchase of goods and services from another country.
International trade: International trade is the exchange of goods and services between countries.
Mercantilism: Mercantilism is an economic theory that emphasizes the importance of a country’s wealth in gold and silver. It argues that countries should try to export more goods and services than they import.
Protectionism: Protectionism is the use of government policies to protect domestic industries from foreign competition. It can take the form of tariffs, quotas, and other measures.
Tariff: A tariff is a tax on imported goods.
Trade deficit: A trade deficit is the situation in which a country imports more goods and services than it exports

What is a trade pattern?

A trade pattern is the way in which a country or region trades with other countries or regions. It can be described by the Types of Goods and services that are traded, the countries or regions with which trade takes place, and the volume of trade.

What are the different types of trade patterns?

There are three main types of trade patterns: bilateral trade, multilateral trade, and regional trade. Bilateral trade is trade between two countries. Multilateral trade is trade between three or more countries. Regional trade is trade between countries in a particular region, such as the European Union or the North American Free Trade Agreement.

What are the factors that influence trade patterns?

There are many factors that influence trade patterns, including:

The size of the economy: Countries with larger economies tend to trade more than countries with smaller economies.
The level of Economic Development: Countries with higher levels of economic development tend to trade more than countries with lower levels of economic development.
The Natural Resources of a country: Countries with abundant natural resources tend to trade more than countries with scarce natural resources.
The technology of a country: Countries with advanced technology tend to trade more than countries with less advanced technology.
The transportation costs between countries: Countries that are closer together tend to trade more than countries that are further apart.
The trade policies of countries: Countries with open trade policies tend to trade more than countries with closed trade policies.

What are the benefits of trade?

There are many benefits of trade, including:

Increased efficiency: Trade allows countries to specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage. This leads to increased efficiency and lower costs.
Increased competition: Trade increases competition, which leads to lower prices and higher quality goods and services.
Increased innovation: Trade encourages innovation, as businesses are constantly looking for new ways to improve their products and services.
Increased economic growth: Trade is a key driver of economic growth.

What are the costs of trade?

There are also some costs of trade, including:

Job losses: Trade can lead to job losses in some sectors, as businesses move production to countries with lower costs.
Environmental damage: Trade can lead to environmental damage, as businesses produce more goods and services.
Inequality: Trade can lead to inequality, as the benefits of trade are not always evenly distributed.

What are the challenges of trade?

There are a number of challenges facing trade, including:

Protectionism: Protectionism is the use of government policies to restrict trade. This can lead to higher prices and lower quality goods and services.
Trade disputes: Trade disputes are disagreements between countries over trade policies. These can lead to tariffs and other trade barriers.
The rise of protectionism: Protectionism is on the rise in many countries. This is a challenge to the global trading system.
The digital economy: The digital economy is changing the way goods and services are traded. This is a challenge to the global trading system.

What is the future of trade?

The future of trade is uncertain. There are a number of challenges facing trade, including protectionism, trade disputes, and the rise of the digital economy. However, there are also opportunities for trade, such as the growth of emerging markets and the development of new technologies.

Which of the following is not a factor that affects trade patterns?
(A) The relative abundance of resources
(B) The level of technology
(C) The cost of transportation
(D) The size of the market
Which of the following is a reason why countries trade with each other?
(A) To specialize in the production of goods and services in which they have a comparative advantage
(B) To increase the variety of goods and services available to consumers
(C) To lower the cost of production
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is an example of a comparative advantage?
(A) The United States has a comparative advantage in the production of wheat because it has a lot of land that is suitable for growing wheat.
(B) China has a comparative advantage in the production of textiles because it has a lot of low-wage workers.
(C) Japan has a comparative advantage in the production of automobiles because it has a lot of skilled workers.
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is an example of a trade barrier?
(A) A tariff
(B) A quota
(C) A subsidy
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is a reason why countries impose trade barriers?
(A) To protect domestic industries from foreign competition
(B) To raise revenue for the government
(C) To achieve other policy objectives, such as national security or environmental protection
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is a consequence of trade barriers?
(A) They can lead to higher prices for consumers.
(B) They can lead to lower quality goods and services.
(C) They can lead to less innovation.
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is a benefit of free trade?
(A) It can lead to lower prices for consumers.
(B) It can lead to higher quality goods and services.
(C) It can lead to more innovation.
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is a criticism of free trade?
(A) It can lead to job losses in some industries.
(B) It can lead to Environmental Degradation.
(C) It can lead to a loss of national Sovereignty.
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is a Regional Trade Agreement?
(A) The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)
(B) The European Union (EU)
(C) The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)
(D) All of the above
Which of the following is a benefit of regional trade agreements?
(A) They can lead to lower trade barriers between member countries.
(B) They can lead to increased trade and investment between member countries.
(C) They can lead to greater economic integration between member countries.
(D) All of the above