Social Research And Techniques

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Social Research and Techniques -Objective of Social Research, Use of scientific method to study of Social Phenomena, tools and techniques of data collection- Observation, Interview, Questionnaire, Schedule

Man by nature is inquisitive, and humans have an extraordinary capacity to exercise rational judgment and probe the realities of the world around us. Inherent in humans is the urge to find out the truth and to make a sense out of the things going around us. You might have observed how a child observes, comprehends and understand the world. While you take this first step towards the course in research methodology at the end of this course you will come to a realization that all these things are already in your behavior and you in fact practice these things every day, perhaps without realizing it.Social research is that domain of human inquisitiveness which primarily deals with the structures and processes of the social world, in both their enduring and changing dimensions. Man’s quest to reflect and probe the social realities at ever deeper levels gives rise to new perspectives which are then questioned by future researchers, further probed and ultimately lead to social theories. In an earlier unit you studied the eminent philosophers in the different parts of the world who have tried to understand and analyze the social realities. This unit takes you further and gives you an understanding about how modern concepts of social research have developed over the years and helps you to differentiate between research methodologies, research methods and techniques. End part of the unit provides you a bird’s eye view of research process which researchers have developed over the years to probe the social realities.

Objectives of social research

Manipulation of Things, Concepts and Symbols

 While, dealing with things the scientist remains at the concrete level. He is able to purposefully handle things for experimentation. But at this level his results are at best limited to the particular thing in a specific situation and none else. Therefore the concepts symbolizing the things and their properties are also dealt with, so as to make much sense to conduct controlled inquiries through abstract notions. Use of concepts or symbols in the process of manipulation not only reduces the content and load of the things but also provides the scientist with greater facility and effect.

Generalization

The sole purpose with which manipulation of things, concepts or symbols is undertaken is to arrive at statements of generality. It implies that the findings of controlled investigation should be a conclusion which will enable us to expect that under certain class of conditions influencing a class of things, something will happen in a generalized manner, notwithstanding its degree.

But in any case the absence is generality cannot characterize science. Therefore the propositions derived on the basis of observations and through manipulation of things, concepts or symbols may vary in their levels of generality, may maintain a high or low degree but should never reach the null point.

Verification of Old Facts

 A major purpose of social research is verification of conclusions which have already been accepted as established facts. Since there is no place for complacency in the arena of science, the established system of knowledge always warrant frequentative scrutiny so as to confirm whether or not the observations are in accordance with the predictions made on the basis of the established corpus of knowledge. In case it is confirmed, the empirical observation strengthens the established system of knowledge. Otherwise in the Light of the research outcome, the system of established corpus of knowledge calls for revision or even rejection.

Extension of Knowledge

As a sequel to generalization the seemingly inconsistencies in the existing corpus of knowledge are brought into light and attempts are made to reconcile these inconsistencies. The new general proposition, established as an outcome of research also identifies gaps in the established system of knowledge. A gap in knowledge implies the inadequacy of the theory as well as the failure of a conceptual scheme to explain and account for certain aspects of a social phenomenon.

Knowledge May be Used for Theory Building or Practical Application

By seeking to explain the unexplained social phenomena, clarifying the doubtful one and correcting the misconceived facts relating to it, social research provides the scope to use the fruits of research in two possible ways:

  • Theory building  
  • Practical application.

 In its basic or pure form social research gathers knowledge for the sake of it, for building a theory in order to explain human behaviour in its totality, only for the satisfaction of knowing. For construction of theoretic models, the researcher organizes knowledge into propositions and then meaningfully articulated those propositions to constitute a more abstract conceptual system pertaining to a class of phenomena, influenced by a certain class of conditions.

Tools and technique of data collection

Observing Behaviors of Participants

This method specifies the conditions and methods at making observation. In this method, the information is sought by way of investigator’s own direct observation without asking from the respondent. The main advantage of this method is that subjective bias is eliminated, if observations are done accurately. It is the most commonly used method especially in studies relating to behavioral science.  

 Questionnaire Method

 Under this method, a list of questions pertaining to the survey (known as questionnaire) is prepared and sent to the various informants by post. The questionnaire contains questions and provides space for answer. A request is made to the informants through a covering letter to fill up the questionnaire and sent it back within a specified time. The respondents have to answer the questions on their own. The questionnaire can be delivered directly hand by hand, through surface post or as an electronic questionnaire.  In preparing a research questionnaire general question, question wording to collect personal information, use of unfamiliar terms and jargon, etc. should be avoided. Further, before distribution of a research questionnaire at least two pre-tests should be conducted and it is very much needed.    

 Interview Method

This involves listening to or integrating informants. The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral – verbal responses. So, under this method of collecting data, there is a face to face contact with the persons from whom the information is to be collected. The interviewer asks them question pertaining to the survey and collects the desired information. This method can be used through personal interview, telephone interview, Chat, Audio Conferencing, Video Conferencing, etc. The interview can be structured, semi structured or open interview.

Schedules Method

 In this method of data collection, the ennumerator or interviewers who are specially appointed for the purpose along with schedules, go to the respondents, put to them the questions from the Performa in the order the questionnaire are listed and record the replies in the space meant for the same in the Performa. In certain situation, schedules may be handed over to respondents and ennumerators may help them in recording their answer to various questions in the said schedules. Ennumerator explains the aims and objectives of the investigation and also removes the difficulties which respondents may feel in relation to understanding the implication of a particular question or a definition or concept of difficult term. This method has the advantage over the questionnaire method in the sense that the respondents have no scope to misunderstand any question and thereby putting irrelevant answer.  

Information from Correspondents

Under this method, the investigator appoints local agent or correspondents in different places to collect information. These correspondents collect and transmit information to the central office where the data are processed. The special advantage of this method is that it is cheap and appropriate for extensive investigation. However, it may not always ensure accurate results because of the personal prejudice and bias of the correspondents. Newspaper agencies generally adopt this method.


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Social research is the systematic investigation of social phenomena. It is a broad field that encompasses a variety of methods and approaches, all of which are aimed at understanding the social world.

Quantitative research is a type of social research that uses numerical data to answer questions about the social world. It is often used to test hypotheses or to make generalizations about a Population. Quantitative research methods include surveys, experiments, and content analysis.

Qualitative research is a type of social research that uses non-numerical data to answer questions about the social world. It is often used to understand the meaning of social phenomena or to explore the experiences of individuals or groups. Qualitative research methods include interviews, focus groups, and participant observation.

Survey research is a type of quantitative research that involves collecting data from a sample of individuals through a questionnaire or interview. Survey research is often used to measure public opinion or to assess the prevalence of a particular behavior.

Experimental research is a type of quantitative research that involves manipulating one or more variables to observe the effect on another variable. Experiments are often used to test the effectiveness of a new intervention or to determine the cause of a particular social phenomenon.

Case study research is a type of qualitative research that involves in-depth study of a single individual, group, or event. Case studies are often used to understand complex social phenomena or to develop new theories.

Content analysis is a type of quantitative research that involves the systematic analysis of written or spoken text. Content analysis is often used to measure the frequency of certain words or phrases, to identify themes or patterns in text, or to assess the impact of a particular message.

Discourse analysis is a type of qualitative research that involves the analysis of spoken or written language. Discourse analysis is often used to understand the meaning of social interactions or to explore the power dynamics in a particular context.

Grounded theory is a type of qualitative research that involves the development of a theory from data that is collected in the field. Grounded theory is often used to understand complex social phenomena or to develop new interventions.

Action research is a type of qualitative research that involves the researcher working collaboratively with participants to solve a social problem. Action research is often used to improve the Quality Of Life for a particular group of people or to promote Social Change.

Ethnography is a type of qualitative research that involves the researcher immersing themselves in a particular culture or group. Ethnography is often used to understand the meaning of social interactions or to explore the power dynamics in a particular context.

Phenomenology is a type of qualitative research that involves the researcher exploring the lived experiences of individuals. Phenomenology is often used to understand the meaning of social phenomena or to develop new theories.

Interviewing is a data collection method that involves asking questions of individuals or groups. Interviews can be conducted in person, over the phone, or online. Interviews are often used to collect qualitative data, but they can also be used to collect quantitative data.

Observation is a data collection method that involves watching people or groups in their natural setting. Observation can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

Document analysis is a data collection method that involves examining written or visual documents. Document analysis can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

Secondary data analysis is a data collection method that involves using data that has already been collected by someone else. Secondary data analysis can be used to collect both qualitative and quantitative data.

Data analysis is the process of organizing and interpreting data. Data analysis can be used to answer questions about the social world or to develop new theories.

Data Interpretation is the process of making sense of data. Data interpretation can be used to understand the meaning of social phenomena or to develop new interventions.

Research ethics is the set of principles that guide the conduct of social research. Research ethics are important to ensure that research is conducted in a way that is respectful of participants and that minimizes harm.

Research methods are the tools and techniques that are used to collect and analyze data. Research methods vary depending on the type of research being conducted.

Research design is the plan for conducting a research study. Research design includes the selection of a research method, the sampling method, and the data collection and analysis methods.

A research proposal is a document that outlines the plan for conducting a research study. A research proposal is typically submitted to a funding agency or to a committee in order to obtain approval to conduct the study.

A research report is a document that presents the findings of a research study. A research report typically includes an introduction, a literature review, a methods section, a results section, a discussion section, and a conclusion.

Research dissemination is the process of sharing the findings of a research study with others. Research dissemination can be done through publications, presentations, or other means.

What is social research?

Social research is the systematic study of social phenomena through the collection and analysis of data. It is used to understand and explain the social world, and to develop and evaluate social policies and programs.

What are the different types of social research?

There are many different types of social research, but some of the most common include:

  • Quantitative research: This type of research uses numerical data to answer questions about the social world.
  • Qualitative research: This type of research uses non-numerical data, such as text, images, and audio recordings, to answer questions about the social world.
  • Mixed-methods research: This type of research combines quantitative and Qualitative Methods to answer questions about the social world.

What are the steps involved in social research?

The steps involved in social research vary depending on the type of research being conducted, but some of the most common steps include:

  • Defining the research question: The first step in any social research project is to clearly define the research question that you are trying to answer.
  • Reviewing the literature: Once you have defined your research question, you need to review the existing literature on the topic. This will help you to understand what is already known about the topic, and to identify any gaps in the knowledge.
  • Developing a research design: The next step is to develop a research design. This will outline the methods that you will use to collect and analyze data.
  • Collecting data: Once you have developed a research design, you can begin collecting data. This can be done through a variety of methods, such as surveys, interviews, focus groups, and observation.
  • Analyzing data: Once you have collected data, you need to analyze it. This involves using statistical Software to identify patterns and trends in the data.
  • Interpreting results: The final step in social research is to interpret the results. This involves drawing conclusions about what the data means, and how it answers your research question.

What are the ethical considerations in social research?

Social research can have a significant impact on the lives of the people who participate in it, so it is important to take ethical considerations into account when conducting research. Some of the most important ethical considerations include:

  • Informed Consent: Participants must be given full information about the research, including the risks and benefits, before they agree to participate.
  • Confidentiality: Participants’ personal information must be kept confidential.
  • Anonymity: Participants should be able to remain anonymous if they wish.
  • Respect for participants: Participants must be treated with respect throughout the research process.

What are the challenges of social research?

Social research can be challenging for a number of reasons. Some of the most common challenges include:

  • Accessing data: It can be difficult to access data, especially if it is confidential or sensitive.
  • Obtaining informed consent: It can be difficult to obtain informed consent from participants, especially if they are not familiar with research or if they do not speak the same language as the researcher.
  • Maintaining confidentiality: It can be difficult to maintain confidentiality, especially if the research is conducted in a public setting.
  • Dealing with ethical issues: Social research can raise a number of ethical issues, such as the Right to Privacy and the right to be free from harm.

What are the benefits of social research?

Social research can have a number of benefits. Some of the most important benefits include:

  • Increased understanding of the social world: Social research can help us to better understand the social world, including the causes and consequences of social problems.
  • Development of social policies and programs: Social research can be used to develop and evaluate social policies and programs.
  • Empowerment of individuals and groups: Social research can be used to empower individuals and groups by giving them a voice and helping them to understand their situation.
  • Social change: Social research can be used to promote social change by identifying problems and developing solutions.
  1. Which of the following is not a type of research design?
    (A) Cross-sectional
    (B) Longitudinal
    (C) Case study
    (D) Experiment

  2. Which of the following is not a research method?
    (A) Survey
    (B) Interview
    (C) Observation
    (D) Experiment

  3. Which of the following is not a research instrument?
    (A) Questionnaire
    (B) Interview guide
    (C) Observation protocol
    (D) Experiment protocol

  4. Which of the following is not a sampling technique?
    (A) Simple random sampling
    (B) Stratified sampling
    (C) Cluster sampling
    (D) Convenience sampling

  5. Which of the following is not a data analysis technique?
    (A) Descriptive statistics
    (B) Inferential statistics
    (C) Qualitative analysis
    (D) Quantitative analysis

  6. Which of the following is not a research ethics issue?
    (A) Informed consent
    (B) Confidentiality
    (C) Anonymity
    (D) Debriefing

  7. Which of the following is not a research report section?
    (A) Introduction
    (B) Literature review
    (C) Methods
    (D) Results

  8. Which of the following is not a research presentation format?
    (A) Oral presentation
    (B) Poster presentation
    (C) Pecha Kucha presentation
    (D) Webinar

  9. Which of the following is not a research funding source?
    (A) Government agencies
    (B) Private foundations
    (C) Corporations
    (D) Individual donors

  10. Which of the following is not a research career path?
    (A) Academia
    (B) Government
    (C) Nonprofit
    (D) Business