Philosophy of Samkhya
Samkhya, also spelled Sankhya, one of the six systems (darshans) of Indian philosophy. Samkhya adopts a consistent dualism of matter (prakriti) and the eternal spirit (purusha). The two are originally separate, but in the course of evolution purusha mistakenly identifies itself with aspects of prakriti. Right knowledge consists of the ability of purusha to distinguish itself from prakriti.
Although many references to the system are given in earlier texts, Samkhya received its classical form and expression in the Samkhya-karikas (“Stanzas of Samkhya”) by the philosopher Ishvarakrishna (c. 3rd century CE). Vijnanabhikshu wrote an important treatise on the system in the 16th century.
The Samkhya School assumes the existence of two bodies, a temporal body and a body of “subtle” matter that persists after biological death. When the former body has perished, the latter migrates to another temporal body. The body of subtle matter consists of the higher functions of buddhi (“consciousness”), ahamkara (“I-consciousness”), manas (“mind as coordinator of sense impressions”), and prana (“breath,” the principle of vitality).
Samkhya posits the existence of an infinite number of similar but separate purushas, none superior to any other. Because purusha and prakriti are sufficient to explain the universe, the existence of a god is not hypothesized. The purusha is ubiquitous, all-conscious, all-pervasive, motionless, unchangeable, immaterial, and without desire. Prakriti is the universal and subtle nature that is determined only by time and space.
The chain of evolution begins when purusha impinges on prakriti, much as a magnet draws iron shavings to itself. The purusha, which before was pure consciousness without an object, becomes focused on prakriti, and out of this is evolved buddhi (“spiritual awareness”). Next to evolve is the individualized ego consciousness (ahamkara, “I-consciousness”), which imposes upon the purusha the misapprehension that the ego is the basis of the purusha’s objective existence.
The ahamkara further divides into the five gross Elements (space, air, fire, water, earth), the five fine elements (Sound, touch, sight, taste, smell), the five organs of perception (with which to hear, touch, see, taste, smell), the five organs of activity (with which to speak, grasp, move, procreate, evacuate), and mind (as coordinator of sense impressions; manas). The universe is the result of the combinations and permutations of these various principles, to which the purusha is added.
Largely outside the above system stands that of the three primal qualities of matter that are called gunas (“qualities”). They make up the prakriti but are further important principally as physiopsychological factors. The first is is tamas (“darkness”), which is obscurity, ignorance, and inertia; the second is rajas (“passion”), which is energy, emotion, and expansiveness; and the highest is sattva (“goodness”), which is illumination, enlightening knowledge, and lightness. To these correspond Personality types: to tamas, that of the ignorant and lazy person; to rajas, that of the impulsive and passionate person; to sattva, that of the enlightened and serene person.
Satkaryavada
Satkaryavada is a hypothesis according to which the effect pre-exists in a potential state. The causal process involves a modification of a stable underlying reality. The effect is not produced as a reality that is distinct from its underlying cause. It is a specific rearrangement of that causal substrate. The Samkhya system is based on the principle of Satkaryavada. The effect pre-exists in the cause here. Cause and effect are seen as temporal aspects of the same thing. It is considered as theory of existent causes. The effect lies latent in the cause which in turn seeds the next effect. It maintains that effect is real. Before its manifestation it is present cause in a potential form.
According to Satkaryavada principle the cause is hidden inside the effect. This effect exists due to several reasons:
- what is nonexistent cannot be produced;
- for producing a specific material cause is resorted to;
- everything cannot be produced;
- A specific material cause is capable of producing a specific product alone that effect;
- There is a particular cause for a particular effect.
Nature of Prakriti and Purusha
Prakriti, in the Samkhya system (darshan) of Indian philosophy, material nature in its germinal state, eternal and beyond perception. When prakriti (female) comes into contact with the spirit, purusha (male), it starts on a process of evolution that leads through several stages to the creation of the existing material world. Prakriti is made up of three gunas (“qualities” of matter), which are the constituent cosmic factors that characterize all nature. In the Samkhya view, only prakriti is active, while the spirit is confined within it and only observes and experiences. Release (moksha) consists in the spirit’s extrication from prakriti by its own recognition of its total difference from it and noninvolvement in it. In early Indian philosophical texts the term svabhava (“own being”) was used in a sense similar to prakriti to mean material nature.
Purusha, (Sanskrit: “spirit,” “person,” “self,” or “consciousness”) in Indian philosophy, and particularly in the dualistic system (darshan) of Samkhya, the eternal, authentic spirit. In Samkhya and also in Yoga/”>Yoga, purusha (male) is opposed to prakriti (female), the basic matter constituting the phenomenal universe, as the two ontological realities. All animate and inanimate objects and all psychomental experiences are emanations of prakriti. It is confusion of purusha with prakriti that keeps the spirit in bondage; disassociation of purusha from prakriti is its liberation. In one of the early creation myths related in the Rigveda, India’s oldest text, purusha is also the primal man from whose body the universe was created. He was both sacrificer and victim, and his rite was the imagined prototype for later Vedic and Hindu sacrifices.,
Samkhya is a dualistic system of Hindu philosophy that posits the existence of two fundamental principles: Purusha (consciousness) and Prakriti (matter). Purusha is eternal, unchanging, and perfect, while Prakriti is ever-changing and imperfect. The goal of Samkhya is to achieve liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) by discriminating between Purusha and Prakriti and realizing the true nature of Purusha.
The nature of Purusha and Prakriti
Purusha is pure consciousness, without any qualities or attributes. It is eternal, unchanging, and perfect. Prakriti is the material world, which is composed of three gunas: sattva, rajas, and tamas. Sattva is the quality of purity and Light, rajas is the quality of activity and passion, and tamas is the quality of inertia and darkness.
The three gunas
The three gunas are the basic building blocks of Prakriti. They are always present in everything, but in different proportions. The relative proportions of the gunas determine the nature of anything. For example, a person who is kind and compassionate is said to have a predominance of sattva. A person who is angry and aggressive is said to have a predominance of rajas. A person who is lazy and inactive is said to have a predominance of tamas.
The 25 tattvas
The 25 tattvas are the 25 principles that make up the universe according to Samkhya philosophy. The first 24 tattvas are all aspects of Prakriti, while the 25th tattva is Purusha. The 24 tattvas are:
- Prakriti
- Ahamkara (ego)
- Manas (mind)
- Indriyas (senses)
- Tanmatras (subtle elements)
- Pancha Mahabhutas (five gross elements)
- Ether
- Air
- Fire
- Water
- Earth
- Time
- Space
- Sound
- Touch
- Form
- Taste
- Smell
- Pleasure
- Pain
- Desire
- Aversion
- Action
- Knowledge
The five kleshas
The five kleshas are the five afflictions that cause suffering. They are:
- Avidya (ignorance)
- Asmita (egoism)
- Raga (attachment)
- Dvesha (aversion)
- Abhinivesha (fear of death)
The eight limbs of yoga
The eight limbs of yoga are the eight steps that lead to liberation. They are:
- Yama (restraints)
- Niyama (observances)
- Asana (postures)
- Pranayama (breath control)
- Pratyahara (withdrawal of the senses)
- Dharana (concentration)
- Dyana (meditation)
- Samadhi (absorption)
The goal of Samkhya: liberation (moksha)
The goal of Samkhya is to achieve liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). This is achieved by discriminating between Purusha and Prakriti and realizing the true nature of Purusha. When Purusha realizes its true nature, it is no longer bound by Prakriti and is free from suffering.
- What is the philosophy of Samkhya?
The philosophy of Samkhya is a dualistic system of thought that originated in India over 2,000 years ago. It is one of the six Orthodox Schools of Hindu philosophy, and it has had a profound influence on Indian thought and culture.
The central tenet of Samkhya is that there are two fundamental realities: Purusha, or consciousness, and Prakriti, or matter. Purusha is eternal, unchanging, and perfect, while Prakriti is ever-changing and imperfect. The goal of human life, according to Samkhya, is to achieve liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth (samsara) by realizing the difference between Purusha and Prakriti.
- What are the three gunas?
The three gunas are the three fundamental qualities of Prakriti. They are:
- Sattva: The quality of goodness, light, and purity.
- Rajas: The quality of passion, activity, and desire.
- Tamas: The quality of darkness, inertia, and ignorance.
The three gunas are always present in everything in the world, but in different proportions. The balance of the gunas in a person’s mind and body determines their personality and character.
- What is the goal of life in Samkhya?
The goal of life in Samkhya is to achieve liberation (moksha) from the cycle of rebirth (samsara). This is achieved by realizing the difference between Purusha and Prakriti. When a person realizes that they are not their body or mind, but rather a pure consciousness, they are free from the cycle of rebirth.
- What is the path to liberation in Samkhya?
The path to liberation in Samkhya is a gradual process of self-realization. It begins with the study of the Samkhya philosophy and the practice of meditation. As a person becomes more and more aware of their true nature, they become less and less attached to the world of matter. Eventually, they achieve liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
- What are the criticisms of Samkhya?
One criticism of Samkhya is that it is too dualistic. It posits two fundamental realities, Purusha and Prakriti, and it does not explain how these two realities interact. Another criticism is that Samkhya is too abstract. It is a philosophy of consciousness, and it does not offer much guidance on how to live a moral or ethical life.
- What are the contributions of Samkhya?
Samkhya has made a number of important contributions to Indian thought. It is one of the oldest and most influential schools of Hindu philosophy. It has also influenced other schools of thought, such as Yoga and Vedanta. Samkhya has also had a significant impact on Indian art, literature, and culture.
- What is the future of Samkhya?
Samkhya is a living tradition, and it continues to be practiced and studied by many people in India. It is also attracting attention from scholars and philosophers in the West. It is possible that Samkhya will play an increasingly important role in global thought in the future.
The Samkhya philosophy is a dualistic philosophy that posits two fundamental principles: puruca (consciousness) and prak[ti (matter). Which of the following is not a characteristic of puruca?
(A) Puruca is eternal and unchanging.
(B) Puruca is pure consciousness.
(C) Puruca is the only reality.
(D) Puruca is the cause of the world.The Samkhya philosophy also posits three gunas, or qualities, of prak[ti: sattva (purity), rajas (activity), and tamas (inertia). Which of the following is not a characteristic of sattva?
(A) Sattva is associated with light, clarity, and knowledge.
(B) Sattva is associated with happiness, peace, and love.
(C) Sattva is associated with Growth, expansion, and development.
(D) Sattva is associated with contraction, limitation, and decay.The goal of the Samkhya philosophy is to achieve kaivalya, or liberation from the cycle of rebirth. Which of the following is not a way to achieve kaivalya?
(A) Knowledge of the true nature of puruca and prak[ti.
(B) Detachment from the world of objects and experiences.
(C) Control of the mind and senses.
(D) Performance of good deeds.The Samkhya philosophy has had a significant influence on Indian thought, particularly on the Yoga Philosophy. Which of the following is not a Yoga practice that is based on the Samkhya philosophy?
(A) Yama (restraints).
(B) Niyama (observances).
(C) Asana (postures).
(D) Samadhi (absorption).The Samkhya philosophy has also had an influence on Western thought, particularly on the philosophy of Schopenhauer. Which of the following is not a similarity between the Samkhya philosophy and Schopenhauer’s philosophy?
(A) Both philosophies posit a dualistic reality.
(B) Both philosophies see the world as an illusion.
(C) Both philosophies see the goal of life as liberation from suffering.
(D) Both philosophies see the path to liberation as through knowledge and detachment.