Medieval history of tamil nadu

Medieval history of Tamil nadu

Chola empire

The founder of the Chola Empire was Vijayalaya, who was first feudatory of the Pallavas of Kanchi. He captured Tanjore in 850 A.D. He established a temple of goddess Nishumbhasudini (Durga) there.

By the end of the ninth century, Cholas/”>The Cholas had defeated the Pallavas completely and weakened the Pandyas capturing the Tamil country (Tondamandala) and including it under their domination He then became a sovereign ruler. The Rashtrakuta king, Krishna II gave his daughter in marriage to Aditya.

He erected many Shiva temples. He was succeeded in 907 A.D. by Parantaka I, the first important ruler of the Cholas. Parantaka I was an ambitious ruler and engaged himself in wars of conquest from the beginning of his reign. He conquered Madurai from the Pandya ruler Rajasimha II. He assumed the title of Maduraikonda (captor of Madurai).

He, however, lost to the Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna III at the battle of Tokkolam in 949 A. D. The Cholas had to cede Tondamandalam to the adversary. At that point of time the Chola kingdom almost ceased to exist. It was a serious setback to the rising Chola power. The revival of Chola power began from the accession of Parantaka II who recovered Tondamandalam to re­establish dominance of the dynasty.

The climax in Chola power was achieved under the successor of Parantaka II, Arumolivarman, who crowned himself as Rajaraja I in 985 A D the next thirty years of his rule formed the formative periodof Chola imperialism.

The Chola kingdom grew under him into an extensive and well-knit empire, efficiently organized and administered and possessing a powerful standing army and navy. Rajaraja began his conquests by attacking the confederation between the rulers of the Pandya and Kerala kingdoms and of Ceylon. Polonnaruva became the capital of Chola province in North Ceylon after the defeat of Mahinda V, the Ceylonese king.

Rajaraja I also encouraged Sri Mara Vijayottungavarman, the Sailendra ruler of Sri Vijaya to build a Buddhist Vihara at Negapatam. This vihara was called ‘Chudamani Vihara’ after the father of ri Mara. Rajaraja was succeeded by his son Rajendra I in 1014 A.D. He ruled jointly with his father for a few years. He also followed a policy of conquest and annexation adopted by his father and further raised the power and prestige of the Cholas. He followed the expansionist policy and made extensive con­quests in Ceylon.

The Pandya and Kerala country after being conquered was constituted as a viceroyalty under the Chola king with the title of Chola-Pandya. Madurai was its headquarters. Pro­ceeding through Kalinga, Rajendra I attacked Bengal and defeated the Pala ruler Mahipala in 1022 A.D. But he annexed no territory in north India.

To commemorate the occasion, Rajendra I assumed the title of Gangaikondachola (the Chola conqueror of Ganga). He built the new capital near the mouth of the Kaveri and called it Gangaikondacholapuram (the city of the Chola conqueror of the Ganga).

Rajendra was succeeded by his son Rajadhiraja I in 1044 A.D. He was also an able ruler. He put down the hostile forces in Ceylon and suppressed the rebellious Pandyas and subjugated their terri­tory. He celebrated his victory by performing Virabhisheka (coronation of the victor) at Kalyani after sacking Kalyani and assumed the title of Vijayarajendra. He lost his life in the battle with the Chalukyan king Someswara I at Koppam. His brother Rajendra II succeeded him. He continued his struggle against Someswara.

Chola administration

The Chola kings followed a highly efficient system of’ administration. The entire Tanjore district, parts of’Trichy, Pudukottai and South Arcot districts formed the part of’ the Chola Mandalam. The Cholas had three major administrative divisions called Central Government, Provincial Government and Local Government. Tanjore was the capital of the Cholas. The efficient Chola administrative system has been well appreciated by many historians and rulers.

The king was the head of the administration. The Chola kings and Queens were considered as representatives of God. Their idols were kept in temples. The Chola kingship was hereditary. The Chola royal family followed the principle that eldest son should succeed the king to the Chola throne. The heir apparent was called Yuvaraja, The Chola monarchs enjoyed enormous powers and privileges. The Chola kings took up titles which marked their achievements. They lived in very big royal palaces. Kings were assisted by ministers and officials in their administration. Chola kings had tiger as their royal emblem.

The Chola Empire was divided into nine provinces. They were also called mandalams. The head of the province was called viceroy. Close relatives of kings were appointed as viceroys. The Viceroys were in constant touch with the Central Government. Viceroys received orders from the king. They sent regular reply to the king. The viceroys had a large number of officials to assist them in the work of administration.

The success of the Chola administration depended more on the proper functioning of the administrative division us. Generally mandalams were named after the original names or the titles of the Chola kings. Each mandalam was divided into number of Kottams or Valanadus. Each kottam was sub divided into nadu. Each nadu was further divided into (Urs) villages which form part of the last unit of the administration. Uttaramerur inscriptions speak about the administration of the Cholas.

The Chola village administration was very systematic and well developed. As regards the assemblies of the villages, the Chola inscriptions mention the assemblies called the ‘Ur’ and the ‘Sabha’ or ‘Mahasabha’ which were the gatherings of the adult male members of the Community.

The ‘Ur’ was the gatherings of the local residents to discuss matters without any formal rule or procedure. But the Sabha or Mahasabha was the assembly of the Brahmin Settlement (Agrahara) and it is this type about which our information’s are copious indeed from the inscriptions of the period.

Nothing is definitely known about the composition of the ‘Ur’. But this much we came to know that ‘Ur’ had an executive body, called “Abunganam” or “ganam” or “Miyalunganam.” Instead Sabha or Mahasabha had a more complex machinery of local administration. Inscriptions found in Tondamandalam and Cholamandalam describe us the activities of the Mahasabhas. The assemblies are found concentrated in certain regions, the major concentration being around Kanchi and minor one encircling Madras. The two Uttaramerur records of Prantika I of 919 and 921 A.D. contain resolutions passed by the local “Mahasabha” on the constitution of the Variyams or executive committees, the second resolution improving on and superseding the first.

From the functions of these assemblies we can judge the extent of the Chola village autonomy. “The Mahasabha possessed the propriety rights over communal lands and controlled the private lands within its jurisdiction. The Chola village assembly was the absolute proprietor of the village lands. When fresh dealings were made the assembly became proprietor of those newly acquired lands. The assembly was to see that the cultivators were not harassed. The assembly could transfer its jurisdiction to other corporations or organisations. The Mahasabha was also concerned with the reclamation of forest and water lands. It cooperated with the royal officials in estimating the procedure of the cultivated land and assessing the land revenue due from the village. It also collected the revenue, and had also the right to realize the revenue in cases of default by selling the lands in question by public auction. Disputes concerning lands and Irrigation rights were settled by it and in special cases, assemblies irrigation rights were settled by it and in special cases, assembly’s form the neighborhoods were requested to cooperate in arriving at a decision. It also enjoyed powers of Taxation for purposes connected with the village, and of remission of such taxation for specific purposes. Instead of paying land revenue every year, a land owner could compound all his future dues to the local and central authority, by paying a fixed sum to the assembly.

Revival of pandyas

The 13th century is the greatest period in the history of the Pandyan Empire. This period saw the rise of seven prime Lord Emperors (Ellarkku Nayanar – Lord of All) of Pandyan, who ruled the kingdom alongside Pandyan princes. Their power reached its zenith underJatavarman Sundara Pandyan in the middle of the 13th century. The foundation for such a great empire was laid by Maravarman Sundara Pandyan early in the 13th century.

The revival of the Pandyan dynasty was to coincide with the gradual but steady decline of the Chola empire. The last two or three Chola kings who followed Kulothunga III were either very weak or incompetent. The Cholas of course did not lack valour but had been unable to stop the revival of the Pandyan empire from the times of Maravaramban Sundara Pandyan, the revival of the Kadava Pallavas at Kanchi under Kopperinchunga I and indeed the growing power and status of the Telugu Cholas, the Renanti and the Irungola Cholas of the Telugu country; for the last three-named had been very trusted allies of the Cholas up to Kulothunga III, having helped him in conquering Kalinga. The marital alliance of Kulothunga III and one of his successors, Raja Raja III, with the Hoysalas did not yield any advantage, though Kulothunga III took the help of the Hoysalas in countering the Pandiyan resurgence. Kulothunga III had even conquered Karur, the Cheras in addition to Madurai, Ilam and Kalinga. However, his strength rested on support from Hoysalas, whose king Veera Ballala II was his son-in-law. However, Veera Ballala II himself had lost quite a bit of his territories between 1208–1212 to his local adversaries in Kannada country, like the Kalachuris, Seunas etc.

The resurgent Pandiyans under Maravarman Sundara Pandyan went to war against Kulothunga and first at Kandai and then near Manaparai on the outskirts of modern Tiruchirappalli, the Pandiyans routed the Chola army and entered Tiruchy, Srirangam and Thanjavur victorious in war. But it appears that in the Tiruchy and Srirangam areas, there was renewed control of the Cholas, presumably with the help of the Hoysalas under Vira Someswara with the Hoysalas later shifting their allegiance to the Pandyans either during the last years of Maravarman Sundara Pandyan or the early years of his successor Jatavarman Sundara Pandyan.

Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan was a very brave, ambitious warrior king, who wanted to completely subjugate the Cholas. He initially tolerated the presence of the Hoysalas under Vira Someshwara with his son Visvanatha or Ramanatha ruling from Kuppam near Samayapuram on the outskirts of Srirangam. This was because other feudatories of the Hoysalas were also growing in power and threatening the Hoysala kingdom itself. Besides, the Delhi Sultanate invasion of the Deccan had started under Malik Kafur. The challenged Hoysalas did have a foothold in and around Tiruchy and Srirangam for a few years and seemed to have indulged in some temple building activity at Srirangam also. But Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan, who subdued Rajendra Chola III in around 1258–1260 AD was an equal antagonist of the Hoysalas whose presence he absolutely disliked in the Tamil country. He first vanquished the Kadava Pallavas under Kopperinchungan-II, who had challenged the Hoysala army stationed in and around Kanchi and killed a few of their commanders.

Though Rajendra III suffered another defeat at the hands of Vira Someshwara, because of the growing power of Pandiyans being felt by both Cholas and Hoysalas, there was a political affinity between the two which was cemented also by marital relations. At the time the Pandiyans and the Kadava Pallavas,with an earlier Chola, Raja Raja III, having been held in captivity by Kopperinchunga II and his release being secured by the Hoysalas. Ultimately, the Kadava Pallavas, Hoysalas and also the Telugu Choda Timma who invaded Kanchi were all one by one vanquished by Jatavarman Sundara Pandiyan with the Cholas finally becoming extinct after defeat of Hoysala Ramanatha as well as his ally Rajendra iii around 1279 by Maravarman Kulasekhara Pandiyan.

Delhi Sultanate and tamil nadu: Malik kafur’s expedition

Scenarios changed during 1311, when Alauddin Khilji of Khilji dynasty sent his general Malik Kafur on an expedition to the kingdoms of the south which led to the capture of Warangal, the overthrow of the Hoysala Empire south of the Krishna River, and the occupation of Madurai in the extreme south. Malik Khafur was not seeking to expand the borders of the Delhi Sultanate; he was engaging in a military treasure-hunt on the Sultan’s behalf. Malik’s victory over Veera Ballala III and loot of Hindu temples at Halebidu sent alarming bells to the Pandyan Kingdom. Malik Kafur on the other hand, heard about the raised strength of the Pandyan army and its defensive position within the walls of Madurai was reluctant in carrying out his expedition further south. It was Alauddin Khilji himself ordered and sent reinforcements to Malik Kafur to attack Madurai after hearing the richness of it via Veera Virupaksha Ballala who was sent to Delhi as an act of peace by his defeated father Veera Ballala III.

The walled city of Madurai was now left only with the Vira Pandyan’s men. Their sole aim was to safeguard Meenakshi Sundareswarar Temple. Understanding the fact that they were largely outnumbered, the defenders’ only hope is to delay their enemies long enough for them to negotiate. Kafur’s siege on Madurai continued for weeks, however, it turned futile as his army lacked any Ballistas or Trebuchets and relied on Battering Rams of inferior quality. On the other hand, continuous archery attack by Pandyan soldiers and surprise cavalry attacks on the Delhi Sultanate infantry during night times tremendously increased the casualties on Kafur’s side. Malik Kafur lost about half of his army, and then managed to breach the wall after weeks of siege. Vira Pandyan and his soldiers still managed to hold the line, thus making Malik Kafur to finally come down for negotiation.

Vijayanagar empire and era of nayaks

According to tradition and epigraphic evidence two brothers, Harihara and Bukka, founded the Vijayanagara Empire in 1336. This empire included within its fluctuating frontiers peoples who spoke different languages and followed different religious traditions.

On their northern frontier, the Vijayanagara kings competed with contemporary rulers – including the Sultans of the Deccan and the Gajapati rulers of Orissa – for control of the fertile river valleys and the Resources generated by lucrative overseas trade. At the same time, interaction between these states led to sharing of ideas, especially in the field of architecture. The rulers of Vijayanagara borrowed concepts and building techniques which they then developed further.

Some of the areas that were incorporated within the empire had witnessed the development of powerful states such as those of the Cholas in Tamil Nadu and the Hoysalas in Karnataka. Ruling elites in these areas had extended patronage to elaborate temples such as the Brihadishvara temple at Thanjavur and the Chennakeshava temple at Belur. The rulers of Vijayanagara, who called themselves rayas, built on these traditions and carried them, as we will see, literally to new heights.

As warfare during these times depended upon effective cavalry, the import of horses from Arabia and Central Asia was very important for rival kingdoms. This trade was initially controlled by Arab traders. Local communities of merchants known as kudirai chettis or horse merchants also participated in these exchanges. From 1498 other actors appeared on the scene.

These were The Portuguese, who arrived on the west coast of the subcontinent and attempted to establish trading and military stations. Their superior military technology, especially the use of muskets, enabled them to become important players in the tangled politics of the period. In fact, Vijayanagara was also noted for its markets dealing in spices, textiles and precious stones. Trade was often regarded as a status symbol for such cities, which boasted of a wealthy Population that demanded high-value exotic goods, especially precious stones and jewellery. The revenue derived from trade in turn contributed significantly to the prosperity of the state.

Among those who exercised power in the empire were military chiefs who usually controlled forts and had armed supporters. These chiefs often moved from one area to another, and in many cases were accompanied by peasants looking for fertile land on which to settle. These chiefs were known as nayakas and they usually spoke Telugu or Kannada. Many nayakas submitted to the authority of the kings of Vijayanagara but they often rebelled and had to be subdued by military action.

The amara-nayaka system was a major political innovation of the Vijayanagara Empire. It is likely that many features of this system were derived from the iqta system of the Delhi Sultanate.

The amara-nayakas were military commanders who were given territories to govern by the raya. They collected taxes and other dues from peasants, craftspersons and traders in the area. They retained part of the revenue for personal use and for maintaining a stipulated contingent of horses and elephants. These contingents provided the Vijayanagara kings with an effective fighting force with which they brought the entire southern peninsula under their control. Some of the revenue was also used for the maintenance of temples and irrigation works.

The amara-nayakas sent tribute to the king annually and personally appeared in the royal court with gifts to express their loyalty. Kings occasionally asserted their control over them by transferring them from one place to another. However, during the course of the seventeenth century, many of these nayakas established independent kingdoms. This hastened the collapse of the central imperial structure.

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The medieval history of Tamil Nadu is a long and complex one, spanning over a thousand years. The region was home to a number of powerful dynasties, including the Chola, Pandya, and Chera dynasties. These dynasties were responsible for building some of the most impressive temples and monuments in the world, and they also played a major role in the development of Tamil culture.

In the 14th century, the Vijayanagara Empire emerged as a major power in the region. The Vijayanagara Empire was a Hindu empire that ruled over much of southern India. The empire was known for its military prowess and its patronage of the arts. The Vijayanagara Empire came to an end in the 16th century, following a series of invasions by the Muslim Deccan sultanates.

In the 17th century, the British East India Company began to establish trading posts in Tamil Nadu. The British East India Company gradually came to exert more and more control over the region, and in the 19th century, the British government took direct control of Tamil Nadu.

The British Raj was a period of British rule in India that lasted from 1858 to 1947. During this time, Tamil Nadu was part of the Madras Presidency. The Madras Presidency was one of the largest and most important provinces of British India. It was home to a diverse population of Hindus, Muslims, Christians, and other religious groups.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857, also known as the Sepoy Mutiny, was a major uprising against British rule in India. The rebellion began in Meerut, in the northern Indian state of Uttar Pradesh, and quickly spread to other parts of the country. The rebellion was eventually suppressed by the British, but it had a profound impact on the history of India.

In the early 20th century, the Indian independence movement began to gain momentum. The Indian independence movement was a struggle for self-rule by the Indian people. The movement was led by Mahatma Gandhi and other prominent Indian leaders. The Indian independence movement was successful in achieving its goal, and India gained independence from British rule in 1947.

After independence, Tamil Nadu became a part of the Indian Union. The state of Tamil Nadu was formed in 1956, following the Reorganization of States on linguistic lines. Tamil Nadu is a major state in India, with a population of over 70 million people. The state is home to a rich culture and heritage.

The medieval history of Tamil Nadu is a fascinating and complex one. The region was home to a number of powerful dynasties, and it played a major role in the development of Tamil culture. The British Raj was a period of British rule in India that lasted from 1858 to 1947. During this time, Tamil Nadu was part of the Madras Presidency. The Indian independence movement began to gain momentum in the early 20th century, and India gained independence from British rule in 1947. After independence, Tamil Nadu became a part of the Indian Union.

What is the history of Tamil Nadu?

Tamil Nadu is a state in southern India. It is one of the oldest continuous civilizations in the world, with a history dating back over 2,000 years. The earliest Tamil kingdoms were Chola, Pandya, and Chera. These kingdoms were powerful and prosperous, and they played a major role in the development of Indian culture.

In the 13th century, Tamil Nadu was conquered by the Delhi Sultanate. This led to a period of decline, but the region eventually recovered and entered a new golden age under the Vijayanagara Empire. The Vijayanagara Empire was a powerful Hindu empire that ruled over much of southern India from the 14th to the 16th centuries.

In the 16th century, Tamil Nadu was conquered by the Mughal Empire. This led to another period of decline, but the region eventually recovered and entered a new golden age under the Nayak kingdoms. The Nayak kingdoms were a series of Hindu kingdoms that ruled over much of southern India from the 16th to the 18th centuries.

In the 18th century, Tamil Nadu was conquered by the British East India Company. This led to a period of British rule, which lasted until India’s independence in 1947. After independence, Tamil Nadu became a state of the Republic of India.

What are some of the important events in the history of Tamil Nadu?

Some of the important events in the history of Tamil Nadu include:

• The rise of the Chola, Pandya, and Chera kingdoms in the 1st millennium CE.
• The conquest of Tamil Nadu by the Delhi Sultanate in the 13th century.
• The rise of the Vijayanagara Empire in the 14th century.
• The conquest of Tamil Nadu by the Mughal Empire in the 16th century.
• The rise of the Nayak kingdoms in the 16th century.
• The conquest of Tamil Nadu by the British East India Company in the 18th century.
• India’s independence in 1947.
• Tamil Nadu becoming a state of the Republic of India in 1950.

Who are some of the important people in the history of Tamil Nadu?

Some of the important people in the history of Tamil Nadu include:

• Karikala Chola, a Chola king who ruled in the 2nd century CE.
• Rajaraja Chola I, a Chola king who ruled in the 10th century CE.
• Rajendra Chola I, a Chola king who ruled in the 11th century CE.
• Krishnadevaraya, a Vijayanagara emperor who ruled in the 16th century CE.
• Thiruvalluvar, a Tamil poet and philosopher who lived in the 1st century CE.
• Kamban, a Tamil poet who lived in the 12th century CE.
• Subramania Bharati, a Tamil poet and freedom fighter who lived in the 19th century CE.
• Periyar E.V. Ramasamy, a Tamil social reformer who lived in the 20th century CE.
• C.N. Annadurai, the first Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.
• M.G. Ramachandran, the second Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.
• J. Jayalalithaa, the sixth and longest-serving Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu.

What are some of the important cultural aspects of Tamil Nadu?

Some of the important cultural aspects of Tamil Nadu include:

• Tamil language, one of the oldest languages in the world.
• Tamil literature, which has a long and rich history.
• Tamil music, which is known for its beautiful melodies and soulful lyrics.
• Tamil dance, which is a graceful and expressive form of dance.
• Tamil cuisine, which is known for its use of spices and its delicious flavors.
• Tamil festivals, which are celebrated with great pomp and show.

What are some of the challenges facing Tamil Nadu today?

Some of the challenges facing Tamil Nadu today include:

• POVERTY and Unemployment.
• Lack of Infrastructure-2/”>INFRASTRUCTURE.
• Corruption.
• Caste discrimination.
• Communal violence.
• Environmental Degradation.
• Terrorism.

What are some of the opportunities for Tamil Nadu in the future?

Some of the opportunities for Tamil Nadu in the future include:

• Economic Growth.
• Development of infrastructure.
• Reduction of corruption.
• Eradication of caste discrimination.
• Promotion of communal harmony.
• Protection of the Environment.
• Combating terrorism.

1. The Chola dynasty was founded by:
   (A) Karikala Chola
   (B) Vijayalaya Chola
   (C) Rajaraja Chola I
   (D) Rajendra Chola I

2. The Chola dynasty was known for its:
   (A) military prowess
   (B) maritime trade
   (C) art and architecture
   (D) all of the above

3. The Chola dynasty ruled over a vast empire that included parts of:
   (A) India
   (B) Sri Lanka
   (C) Southeast Asia
   (D) all of the above

4. The Chola dynasty was eventually overthrown by the:
   (A) Pandya dynasty
   (B) Chera dynasty
   (C) Vijayanagara Empire
   (D) Mughal Empire

5. The Chola dynasty left behind a rich legacy of art, architecture, and literature. Some of the most famous Chola temples include:
   (A) Brihadeeswarar Temple
   (B) Gangaikonda Cholapuram Temple
   (C) Airavatesvara Temple
   (D) all of the above

6. The Chola dynasty was also known for its maritime trade. The Chola navy was one of the most powerful in the world at the time. The Cholas traded with countries as far away as:
   (A) China
   (B) Japan
   (C) Arabia
   (D) all of the above

7. The Chola dynasty was a golden age for Tamil culture. The Cholas patronized the arts and literature, and Tamil literature flourished during this time. Some of the most famous Tamil poets of the Chola period include:
   (A) Ilango Adigal
   (B) Thiruvalluvar
   (C) Kamban
   (D) all of the above

8. The Chola dynasty was a major power in South Asia for over 400 years. The Cholas left behind a rich legacy of art, architecture, literature, and maritime trade. The Chola dynasty was a golden age for Tamil culture.

9. The Chola dynasty was founded in the 9th century by Vijayalaya Chola. The Cholas ruled over a vast empire that included parts of India, Sri Lanka, and Southeast Asia. The Chola dynasty was eventually overthrown in the 13th century by the Pandya dynasty.

10. The Chola dynasty was known for its military prowess, maritime trade, and art and architecture. The Cholas were also patrons of the arts and literature. The Chola dynasty left behind a rich legacy that continues to influence South Asian culture today.