Magdhan

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In the sixth country B.C. North India was divided into sixteen kingdoms out of which Avanti, Vatsa, Kosala and Magadha rose into prominence by aggrandizing upon other weaker states.These four states involved themselves in internecine quarrel in which Magadha emerged as the most powerful state and acquired mastery in the political domain of India.

Magadha under Bimbisara:

Magadha rose into prominence under the rule of Bimbisara who belonged to the Haryanka dynasty. Most probably he overthrew the Brihadrathas from Magadha and assumed the title “Srinika” after his accession. He ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. His greatest achievement was the establishment of Magadhan empire. He followed fourfold policy in order to fulfill his programme of imperial expansion.

Policy of Matrimonial Alliance:

By adopting the policy of matrimonial alliance, Bimbisara tried to augment his power. He married Kosaladevi, daughter of king Mahakosala of Kosala, received the Kasi village as dowry, which yielded revenue of 1, 00,000. “Mahavamsa” mentions his marriage with Chellana the daughter of Chetak, the Lichchavi chief of Vaisali.

He then married Vasavi, a princess of Videha in the northward. He also got the hand of Khema, the daughter of king of Modra in Central Punjab. The establishment of matrimonial relations with these states added glory to the Magadhna empire and it also paved the way for the expansion of Magadhan empire and westward.

Policy of Conquest:

The next policy of Bimbisara for the expansion of Magadhan empire was the policy of conquest. Bimbisara led a campaign against the kingdom of Anga and defeated its king Brahmadatta. Anga along with its capital city Champa, was annexed to the Magadhan empire.

Friendly Relation with distant Neighbours:

As a farsighted diplomat, Bimbisara had followed the policy of friendship towards the distant neighbours to win their co-operation for the safety and security of his empire. He received an embassy and letter from Pukkusati, the ruler of Gandhar with which Pradyota had fought unsuccessfully. Magadha’s most formidable enemy was Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Avanti who fought with Bimbisara but ultimately the two thought it wise to become friends. He also sent his physician Jivak to Ujjain when Pradyota was attacked by jaundice.

Consolidation of his Empire by a Good Administrative System:

By introducing a highly efficient system of administration, Bimbisara consolidated his conquests. His administration was found to have been really well-organised and efficient. The high officers were divided into three classes, viz. executive, military and judicial. The ‘Sabarthakas’ were responsible for the management of general administration.

“Senanayaka Mahamatras” were in charge of military affairs. “Vyavaharika Mahamatra’s” were in charge of judicial-administration. Provincial administration was also well-organised. The head of provincial administration was “Uparaja”. The villages enjoyed rural autonomy. “Gramika” was the head of the village administration. The penal laws were severe. Bimbisara also developed the means of Communication by constructing good roads. He is said to have established a new capital at Rajagriha situated on the outskirts of the old capital Girivraja.

He made Magadha a paramount power in the sixth century B.C. It is said that his kingdom had consisted of 80,000 villages. He was also a devotee of Buddha. He donated a garden named “Belubana” to the Buddhist Sangha. According to the Buddhist chronicle Bimbisara ruled Magadha from 544 B.C. to 493 B.C. He was succeeded by his son Ajatasatru who had killed him and seized the throne for himself.

Ajatasatru

The reign of Ajatasatru witnessed the high watermark of Bimbisara dynasty. From the very beginning Ajatasatru pursued the policy of expansion and conquest. He began a prolonged war with Prasenjit of Kosala who had revoked the gift of the Kasi village made to Bimbisara. The war continued for some time with varying success to both sides till Prasenjit ended it by giving his daughter, Vajira Kumari in marriage to Ajatasatru and leaving him in possession of Kasi.

The next achievement of Ajatasatru was the conquest of Lichchavis of Vaisali. Chetak, chief of Lichchavis had formed a strong confederacy comprising 36 republics in order to fight Magadha. According to jaina sources, before his death, Bimbisara gave his elephant “Seyanaga” “Sechanaka” and two large bejewelled necklaces, one each to his sons Halla and Vehalla who were born of their Lichahhavi mother, Chellana.

Chetak had given them political assylum. After his accession, Ajatasatru requested chetak to surrender them. But Chetak refused to extradite Chetaka’s step brothers. So the conflict between Ajatasatru and Lichchhavis became inevitable.

According to Buddhist text Ajatasatru had entered into an agreement with Lichchhavis to divide among them the gems extracted from a mine at the foot of the hill near the river Ganges. But the Lichchhavis deprived Ajatasatru of his share. But Dr. H.C. Raychoudhury points out that the most potent cause of war was the common movement among the republican states against the rising imperialism of Magadha.

Ajatasatru made elaborate war preparations against the Lichchhavis. As a base for operation he constructed a fort at Patalagrama on the confluence of Ganga and the Son which eventually developed into the famous capital of Pataliputra. Ajatasatru also tried to create a division among members of Lichchhavi confederacy. He employed his minister Vassakara who successfully sowed the seeds of dissension among the members of Vajjian confederacy and broke their solidarity.

Thereafter Ajatasatru invaded their territory and it took him full sixteen years to destroy Lichchhavis. In this war he used some new weapons and devices like “mahasilakantaka” and “rathamushala” to overpower the enemy. Ultimately Lichchhavi was annexed to the Magadhan territory.

Ajatasatru faced danger from Avanti while he was engaged in war with Lichchhavis. King Chanda Pradyota of Avanti became jealous of his power and threatened an invasion of Magadha. To meet this danger Ajatasatru started fortification of Rajgiri. But the invasion did not materialize in his life time.

The successors of Ajatasatru:

Ajatasatru was succeeded by his son Udayin who ruled for sixteen years. The Buddhist texts describe him as a parricide where as the jaina literature mentions him as a devoted son to his father. Udayin built the city of Pataliputra at the fort of Patalagrama which commanded the strategically and commercial highway of eastern India. During his rule Avanti became jealous of the ascendancy of Magadha and a contest between the two started for mastery of Northern India.

However, Udayin was not destined to live to see the ultimate victory of Magadha against Avanti. According to the jaina texts he constructed a chaitya in Pataliputra. He also observed fasts on the eighth and fourteenth tithis as per the jaina tradition. It is said that Udayin have been murdered by assassin engaged by Palaka, the king of Avanti. According to Ceylonese chronicle Udayin was succeeded by three kings namely Aniruddha, Manda and Nagadasaka.

The Ceylonese chronicle describes that all the three kings were parasite. The people resented their rule and revolted against the last king Nagadasaka and raised an amatya Sisunaga on the throne of Magadha. With this restoration the rule of Haryanka dynasty came to end and the rule of Sisunaga dynasty came into being.

Sisunaga served as the viceroy of Kasi before he ascended the throne of Magadha. He established his capital at Girivaraja. His greatest achievement was the conquest and annexation of Avanti. This brought to an end the hundred year’s rivalry between Magadha and Avanti. Probably he had annexed Vatsa and Kosala Kingdoms to Magadha. Towards the later part of his regain he temporarily shifted his capital to Vaisali.

Sisunaga was succeeded by his son Kalasoka or Kakavarna. The reign of Kalasoka is important for two events, viz., the transfer of Magadha capital from Girivaraja to Pataliputra and holding of the second Buddhist Congress at Vaisali. Very unfortunately, he lost his life in a palace revolution, which brought the Nandas upon the throne of Magadha. The usurper was probably Mahapadma Nanda, the founder of Nanda dynasty and he also killed the ten sons of Kalasoka who ruled jointly. Thus the Sisunaga dynasty was followed by the new dynasty of the Nandas.

Foundation of the Mauryan Empire:

The foundation of the Maurya Empire in 321 B.C. by Chandragupta Maurya was a unique event in history.

Particularly in view of the fact that it was found shortly after Alexander’s victorious campaigns in North-West India during 327 B.C. – 325 B.C.

There is no unanimity with regard to the ancestry of the Mauryas. The Puranas describe them as Sudras and uprighteous probably due to the fact that the Mauryas were mostly patrons of heterodox sects.

The Buddhist works (e.g. Mahavamsa and Mahavamshatika) have attempted to link the Mauryan dynasty with the tribe of the Sakyas to which the Buddha belonged. In the Divyavadana, Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is described as Kshatriya Murdabhishikta or annointed Kshatriya.

According to the Buddhist writers, the region from which the Mauryas came was full of peacocks (Mayura in Sanskrit and Mora in Pali), and hence they came to be known as the Moriyas (Pali form of Mauryas). It is obvious from this that the Buddhists were trying to elevate the social position of Asoka and his predecessors.

Jain tradition given in Hemachandra’s Parisisthaparvan relates Chandragupta as the son of a daughter of the chief of a village of peacock-tamers (Mayura-Poshaka). The use of the term ‘Vrishala’ and ‘Kula-hina’ in the Mudrarakshasa of Vishakadatta for Chandragupta probably means that Chandragupta was a mere upstart of an unknown family.

The Greek classical writers, such as Justin, describes Chandragupta Maurya as a man of humble origin, but does not mention his exact caste. The Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudradaman (150 A.D.) mentions the Vaisya Pusyagupta as the provincial governor of the Maurya king Chandragupta. There is a reference to Pusyagupta being the brother-in-law of Chandragupta which implies that the Mauryas may have been of Vaisya origin.

In conclusion, we can say that the Mauryas were of comparatively humble origin belonging to the Moriya tribe and were certainly of a low caste.

Chandragupta Maurya (321-297 B.C.):

Chandragupta Maurya succeeded to the Nanda throne in 321 B.C. after dethroning the last Nanda ruler (Dhanananda) at the age of 25. He was the protege of the Brahmin Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, who was his guide and mentor both in acquiring the throne and in keeping it.

The acquisition of Magadha was the first step in establishing the new dynasty. Once the Ganges valley was under his control, Chandragupta moved to the north-west to exploit the power vacuum created by Alexander’s departure. The areas of the North-West fell to him rapidly.

Moving back to Central India he occupied the region north of the Narmada River. But 305 B.C. saw him back in the north-west involved in a campaign against Seleucus Nikator (Alexander’s general who gained control of most Asiatic provinces of the Macedonian empire) which Chandragupta finally won in 303 B.C. Both signed a treaty and entered into a marriage alliance.

Who married whose daughter is not clearly known? But it seems that Chandragupta made a gift of 500 elephants to the Greek general and ob­tained the territory across the Indus viz., the Satrapies of Paropanisadai (Kabul), Aria (Herat), Arachoisa (Kandahar), and Gedrosia (Baluchistan). Seleucus’s ambassador, Megasthenes/”>Megasthenes, lived for many years at the Maurya court at Pataliputra and travelled extensively in the country.

According to Jaina sources (Parisistaparvan), Chandragupta embraced Jainism towards the end of his life and stepped down from the throne in favour of his son, Bindusara. Accompanied by Bhadrabahu, a Jaina saint, and several other monks he is said to have gone to Sravana Belgola near Mysore, where he deliberately starved himself to death in the approved Jaina fashion (Sallekhana).

Kautilya and Arthashastra:

Kautilya was the Prime Minister of Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta found the Mauryan Empire with his help. Arthashastra was written by him. It is the most important source for writing the history of the Mauryas and is divided into 15 adhikarnas or sections and 180 Prakaranas or subdivi­sions. It has about 6,000 slokas. The book was discovered by Shamasastri in 1909 and ably trans­lated by him.

It is a treatise on statecraft and Public Administration. Despite the controversy over its date and authorship, its importance lies in the fact that it gives a clear and methodological analysis of economic and political conditions of the Mauryan period.

The similarities between the administrative terms used in the Arthashastra and in the Asokan edicts certainly suggests that the Mauryan rulers were acquainted with this work.As such his Arthashastra provides useful and reliable information regarding the social and political conditions as well as the Mauryan administration.

1. King:

Kautilya suggests that the king should be an autocrat and he should concentrate all powers into his own hands. He should enjoy unrestricted authority over his realm. But at the same time, he should give honour to the Brahmanas and seek advice from his ministers. Thus the king though autocrat, should exercise his authority wisely.

He should be cultured and wise. He should also be well-read so as to understand all the details of his administration. He says that the chief cause of his fall is that the king is inclined towards evil. He lists six evils that led to a king’s decline. They are haughtiness, lust, anger, greed, vanity and love of pleasures. Kautilya says that the king should live in comfort but he should not indulge in pleasures.

2. Ideals of Kingship:

The major ideal of kingship according to Kautilya is that his own well-being lies in the well-being of his people of only the happy subjects ensure the happiness of their sovereign. He also says that the king should be ‘Chakravarti’ or the conqueror of different Realms and should win glory by conquering other lands.

He should protect his people from external dan­gers and ensure internal peace. Kautilya maintained that the soldiers should be imbued with the spirit of a ‘holy war’ before they march to the battlefield. According to him, all is fair in a war waged in the interest of the country.

3. About the Ministers:

Kautilya maintains that the king should appoint ministers. King without ministers is like a one-wheeled chariot. According to Kautilya, king’s ministers should be wise and intelligent. But the king should not become a puppet in their hands.

He should discard their improper advise. The ministers should work together as; a team. They should hold meetings in privacy. He says that the king who cannot keep his secrets cannot last long.

4. Provincial Administration:

Kautilya tells us that the kingdom was divided into several provinces governed by the members of the royal family. There were some smaller provinces as Saurashtra and Kambhoj etc. administered by other officers called ‘Rashtriyas’. The provinces were divided into districts which were again sub-divided into villages. The chief administrator of the district was called the ‘SthaniK while the village headman was called the ‘Gopa’.

5. Civic Administration:

The administration of big cities as well as the capital city of Pataliputra was carried on very efficiently. Pataliputra was divided into four sectors. The officer incharge of each sector was called the ‘Sthanik. He was assisted by junior officers called the ‘Gopas’ who looked after the welfare of 10 to 40 families. The whole city was in the charge of another officer called the ‘Nagrika’. There was a system of regular census.

6. Spy Organisation:

Kautilya says that the king should maintain a Network of spies who should keep him well informed about the minute details and happenings in the country, the provinces, the districts and the towns. The spies should keep watch on other officials. There should be spies to ensure peace in the land. According to Kautilya, Women spies are more efficient than men, so they should, in particular, be recruited as spies. Above all the kings should send his agents in neighbouring countries to gather information of political significance.

7. Shipping:

Another significant information that we gather from Kautilya is about shipping under the Mauryas. Each port was supervised by an officer who kept vigil on ships and ferries. Tolls were levied on traders, passengesand fishermen. Almost all ships and boats were owned by the kings.

8. Economic Condition:

Kautilya says that POVERTY is a major cause of rebellions. Hence there should be no shortage of food and Money to buy it, as it creates discontent and destroys the king. Kautilya therefore advises the king to take steps to improve the economic condition of his people. Kautilya says that the chief Source Of Income was the land revenue in villages while the tax on the sale of goods was the chief source in the cities.

Bindusara (297-272 B.C.):

In 297 B.C., Chandragupta was succeeded by his son Bindusara, known to the Greeks as Amitrochates (Sanskrit, Amitraghata, the destroyer of foes). Bindusara campaigned in the Deccan, extending Mauryan control in the peninsula as far south as Mysore.

He is said to have conquered the land between the two seas’, presumably the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal. Kalinga (modern Orissa) on the eastern coast, however, remained hostile and was conquered in the succeeding reign by Bindusara’s son Ashoka.

In foreign affairs, Bindusara maintained the friendly relations with the Hellenic west established by his father. He is said to have had contacts with Antiochus I Soter, king of Syria, son of Seleucus Nikator whose ambassador, Deimachos was said to have been at his court.

A man of wide tastes and interests, he requested Antiochus I to send him some sweet wine, dried figs and a sophist; the last being not meant for export, however, could not be sent. Pliny mentions that Ptolemy Philadelpus of Egypt sent Dionysius as his ambassador to India. The Ashokavadana informs us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara, when the citizens objected to the oppression of the higher officials. Bindusara sent Asoka to put an end to the revolt, which he did successfully.

Ashoka (268-232 B.C.):

Bindusara’s death in 272 B.C. led to a struggle for SUCCESSION among his sons. It lasted for four years and in 268 B.C. Ashoka emerged successful. According to Asokavadana, Subhadrangi was the mother of Ashoka and it describes her as the daughter of a Brahman of Champa.

The Divyavadana version largely agrees with that of the Ashokavadana. She is called Janapadakalyani, or in other version of the same source Subhadrangi. In the Ceylonese source, Vamsatthapakasini the Queen mother is called Dharma.

According to legend, Ashoka as a young prince was given charge of the Viceroyship of Ujjain. Buddhist texts inform us that a revolt took place in Taxila during the reign of Bindusara and Ashoka was sent to quell it. This he did without antagonising the local populace. Corroboration for this may be sought in an Aramaic inscription from Taxila which refers to Priyadarshi the viceroyor governor.

During his Viceroyalty of Ujjain he fell in love with the daughter of a merchant of Vidisa, referred to as Devi or Vidisamahadevi or Sakyani. Ashoka’s two other well-known queens were Karuvaki and Asandhimitra. The second queen, Karuvaki is mentioned in the Queen’s Edict inscribed on a pillar at Allahabad, in which her religious and charitable donations are referred to. She is described as the mother of Prince Tivara, the only son of Asoka to be mentioned by the name in the inscription.

As regards Ashoka’s accession to the throne there is a general agreement in the sources that Ashoka was not the crown prince but succeeded after killing his brothers. There is, however, no unanim­ity in the texts either regarding the nature of the struggle or the number of his brothers.

In one place the Mahavamsa states that Asoka killed his elder brother to become king whereas elsewhere in the same work and also in the Dipavamsa he is said to have killed ninety-nine brothers. The Mahavamsa states that although he put ninety-nine brothers to death, Asoka spared the life of the youngest of these, Tissa who was later made vice-regent (He retired to a life of religious devotion having come under the influence of the preacher Mahadhammarakkhita and then known by the name of Ekaviharika). It seems that though there was a struggle, a lot of descriptions of it are plain exaggerations.

After ascending the throne, Ashoka according to Taranatha spent several years in pleasurable pursuits and was consequently called Kamasoka. This was followed by a period of extreme wicked­ness, which earned him the name of Candasoka. Finally his conversion to Buddhism-2/”>Buddhism and his subse­quent piety led him to be called Dhammasoka.

The most important event of Ashoka’s reign seems to have been his conversion to Buddhism after his victorious war with Kalinga in 260 B.C. Kaling con­trolled the routes to South India both by land and sea, and it was therefore necessary that it should become a part of the Mauryan Empire.

The 13th Major Rock Edict vividly describes the horrors and miseries of this war and the deep remorse it caused to Ashoka. In the words of the Mauryan emperor, ‘A hundered and fifty thousand people were deported, a hundred thousand were killed and many times that number perished…………. It has been stated in the past that he was dramatically converted to Buddhism immediately after the battle, with its attendant horrors.

But this was not so, and as one of his inscriptions, viz., Bhabra Edict, states it was only after a period of more than two years that he became an ardent supporter of Buddhism under the influence of a Buddhist monk, Upagupta.

He also states his acceptance of the Buddhist creed, the faith in the Buddha, the Dhamma (the teachings of the Buddha), and the Samgha. Written specifically for the local Buddhist clergy, he also refers to himself as the ‘king of Magadha’, a title which he uses only on this occasion.

The Buddhist church was reorganised during his reign with the meeting of Third Buddhist council at Pataliputra in 250 B.C. under the chairmanship of Mogalliputta Tissa but the emperor himself does not refer to it in his inscrip­tions.

This stresses the point that Asoka was careful to make a distinction between his personal support for Buddhism and his duty as emperor to remain unattached and unbiased in favour of any religion. The Third Buddhist Council is significant because it was the final attempt of the more sectar­ian Buddhists, the Theravada School, to exclude both dissidents and innovators from the Buddhist Order.

Furthermore, it was at this Council that it was decided to send missionaries to various parts of the sub-continent and to make Buddhism an actively proselytizing religion.

Ashoka mentions various of his contemporaries in the Hellenic world with whom he exchanged missions, diplomatic and otherwise in his 13th Major Rock Edict. These have been identified as Antiochus II Theos of Syria, (Amtiyoga)the grandson of Seleucus Nikator; Ptolemy III Philadelphus of Egypt (Tulamaya); Antigonus Gonatus of Macedonia (Antekina); Magas of Cyrene (Maka) and Alexander of Epirus (Alikyashudala).

Communications with the outside world were by now well developed. Asokan inscriptions corrobo­rated by archaeological data are a reliable guide to the extent of the Mauryan Empire.

Magadha was the home province of the Mauryas and the city of Pataliputra its capital. Other cities mentioned in the inscriptions include Ujjain, Taxila, Tosali near Bhubaneshwar, Kausambi and Suvarnagiri in Andhra Pradesh.

According to tradition, Kashmir was included in the Ashokan Empire and that Ashoka built the city of Srinagar. Khotan in Central Asia was also supposed to have come under Mauryan sway.

The Mauryans had close connections with the areas of modern Nepal since the foothills were a part of the empire. One of Ashokan’s daughter is said to have married a nobleman from the Mountains of Nepal.

In the east, Mauryan influence extended as far as the Ganga delta. Tamralipti or modern Tamluk was an important port on the Bengal coast from where the ships sailed for Burma, Sri Lanka as well as for South India. Another major port on the west coast was Broach at the mouth of the Narmada.

Kandahar formed the western-most extension of the Mauryan Empire and Ashokan inscriptions mention the Gandharas, Kambojas and the Yonas as his borderers. Through the north-west the Mauryas maintained close contacts with their neighbours, the Seleucid Empire and the Greek kingdoms.

Mauryan relations with Sri Lanka were very close and Asoka sent his son Mahindra and daughter Sanghamitra to preach Buddhism in Sri Lanka. Asokan inscriptions in the south mention several people with whom he was on friendly terms – Cholas/”>The Cholas, Pandyas, Satiyaputras and Keralaputras (Major Rock Edict II.)

Disintegration of the Empire:

Towards the end of his reign Asoka’s grip over the imperial organisation became weak. The Maurya Empire began to decline with the death of Asoka in 232 B.C., soon after it broke up. The evidence for the later Mauryas is very meagre.

The Puranas, besides Buddhist and Jaina literature, do provide us with some information on the later Mauryas, but there is no agreement among them. Even among the Puranas, there is a lot of Variance between one Puranas and another. The one statement on which all the Puranas are in agreement is that the dynasty lasted 137 years.

Ashoka’s death was followed by the division of the empire into western and eastern halves. The western part including the north-western province, Gandhara and Kashmir was governed by Kunala (one of the sons of Ashoka) and then for a while by Samprati (according to Jaina tradition he was a grandson of Ashoka and a patron of Jainism).

It was later threatened from the north-west by the Bactrian Greeks, to whom it was practically lost by 180 B.C. From the south, the threat was posed by the Andhrasorthe Satavahanas who later came to power in the Deccan.

The eastern part of the Maurya Empire, with its capital at Pataliputra, came to be ruled by Dasaratha (probably one of the grandsons of Ashoka). Dasaratha apart from being mentioned in the Matsya Purana is also known to us from the caves in the Nagarjuni Hills, which he dedicated to the Ajivikas.

According to the Puranas, Dasaratha reigned for eight years. This would suggest that he died without an heir old enough to come to the throne. The same sources speak of Kunala ruling for eight years.

He must have died at about the same time as Dasaratha; so that Sampriti now ruling in the west may have successfully regained the throne at Pataliputra, thus uniting the empire again.

This event occurred in 223 B.C. However, the empire had probably already begun to disintegrate. Jaina sources mention that Samprati ruled from Ujjain and Pataliputra. After Dasaratha and Samprati came Salisuka, a prince mentioned in the astronomical work, the Gargi Samhita, as a wicked quarrelsome king.

The successors of Salisuka, according to the Puranas, were Devavarman, Satamdhanus and finally Brihadratha. The last prince was overthrown by his commander-in-chief, Pushyamitra, who laid the foundations of a new dynasty called Sunga dynasty.

Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas:

The Magadhan Empire, which had been reared by successive wars culminating in the conquest of Kalinga, began to disintegrate after the death of Ashoka in 232 B.C. The reason given by historians for such, rapid declines are as conflicting as they are confusing.

Some of the very obvious and other controversial causes for the decline of the Mauryan Empire are discussed below:

1. One of the more obvious reasons for the decline was the succession of weak kings after Ashoka.
2. A further and immediate cause was the partition of the empire into two, the eastern part under Dasaratha and the western part under Kunala. Had the partition not taken place, the Greek invasions of the north-west could have been held back for a while, giving the Mauryas a chance to re-establish some degree of their previous power. The partition of the empire disrupted the various Services as well.
3. Scholars have suggested that the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and the pro-Jaina policies of his successors alienated the Brahmins and resulted in the revolt of Pushyamitra, the founder of the Shunga dynasty. H.C. Raychaudhuri maintains that Asoka’s pacifist policies were responsible for undermining the strength of the empire.

The second argument blames Ashoka’s emphasis on non­violence for weakening the empire and its military strength. Haraprasad Sastri holds the view that the decline of the Mauryan Empire was the result of the Brahmanical revolt on account of ban on animal sacrifices and undermining the prestige of the Brahmanas. Both these arguments are rather simplistic.

Pushyamitra’s usurpation of the throne cannot be seen as a brahmana revolt because by that time the administration had become so ineffective that officials were willing to accept any viable alternative.

The second proposition does not take into ac­count the nature of the policy of non-violence. There is nothing in the Ashokan inscriptions to suggest demobilization of the army. Similarly capital punishment continued. The emphasis was on the reduc­tion of species, and numbers of animals killed for food. There is nothing to suggest that the killing of animals stopped completely.

4. Another reason put forward by some historians such as D.D. Kosambi is that there was consid­erable pressure on the Mauryan economy under the later rulers leading to heavy Taxation.

This opinion is again one-sided and is not corroborated by archaeological data. Excavations at sites like Hastinapura and Sisupalgarh have shown improvement in the material culture.

5. The organization of administration, and the conception of the state or the nation, were of great significance in the causes of the decline of the Mauryas. The Mauryan administration was of an extremely centralized character which necessitated a king of considerable personal ability.

In such a situation the weakening of the central control leads automatically to a weakening of the administration. With the death of Ashoka and the uneven quality of his successors, there was a weakening at the centre, particularly after the division of the empire.

6. The Mauryan state derived its revenues from taxing a variety of Resources which would have to grow and expand so that the administrative apparatus of the state could be maintained.

Unfortunately the Mauryas made no attempt to expand the revenue potential or to restructure and reorganise the resources. This inherent weakness of the Mauryan economy when coupled with other factors led to the collapse of the Mauryan Empire.

7. The spread of material culture of the Gangetic basin to the outlying areas led to the formation of new kingdoms.

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Magadha was an ANCIENT KINGDOM in the Indian subcontinent. It was located in the eastern part of the country, in what is now the state of Bihar. Magadha was one of the most powerful kingdoms in India for centuries. It was the birthplace of Buddhism and Jainism, and it played a major role in the development of Indian culture.

The Magadha Empire was founded in the 6th century BC by Bimbisara. Bimbisara was a powerful ruler who expanded the kingdom’s territory. He was succeeded by his son, Ajatasatru, who further expanded the kingdom. Ajatasatru was also the king who imprisoned the Buddha.

The Magadha Empire reached its peak under the rule of Ashoka the Great. Ashoka was a Buddhist ruler who conquered much of the Indian subcontinent. He is known for his religious Tolerance and his promotion of Buddhism. After Ashoka’s death, the Magadha Empire declined. It was eventually conquered by The Gupta Empire in the 4th century AD.

The Gupta Empire was a golden age for India. It was a time of peace and prosperity. The Guptas were patrons of the arts and sciences. They built many temples and universities. The Gupta Empire came to an end in the 6th century AD.

After the Gupta Empire, Magadha was ruled by a number of different dynasties. These included the Pala Empire, the Sena Empire, and the Bengal Sultanate. In the 16th century, Magadha came under the rule of the Mughal Empire. The Mughals were a Muslim dynasty that ruled over much of India. They were tolerant of other religions, and they built many mosques and temples in Magadha.

In the 18th century, Magadha came under the rule of the British East India Company. The British ruled India for nearly 200 years. They built many roads, railways, and schools in Magadha. They also introduced Western Education and culture to the region.

In 1947, India gained independence from Britain. Magadha became part of the new Indian state of Bihar. Bihar is one of the poorest states in India. However, it is also home to a number of important historical and cultural sites. These include the ancient cities of Patna, Nalanda, Rajgir, Bodh Gaya, and Vaishali.

Patna is the capital of Bihar. It is a major commercial and industrial center. Patna is also home to a number of universities, including the Patna University and the Nalanda University.

Nalanda was an ancient university that was founded in the 5th century AD. It was one of the most important centers of Learning in the world. Nalanda was destroyed by the Turks in the 12th century. However, its ruins are still a popular tourist destination.

Rajgir is a city that is located in the foothills of the Himalayas. It was an important religious center in ancient times. Rajgir is home to a number of Buddhist temples and monasteries.

Bodh Gaya is a town that is located in the state of Bihar. It is the place where the Buddha attained enlightenment. Bodh Gaya is a major pilgrimage site for Buddhists from all over the world.

Vaishali was an ancient city that was located in the state of Bihar. It was one of the most important cities in the ancient Indian subcontinent. Vaishali was the capital of the Vajji confederacy. It was also the place where the Buddha delivered his first sermon.

Magadha is a region with a rich history and culture. It is home to a number of important historical and cultural sites. Magadha is also a major economic and industrial center.

What is the difference between a virus and a bacteria?

A virus is a tiny infectious agent that can replicate only inside the living cells of other organisms. Viruses can infect all types of life forms, from animals and Plants to bacteria and archaea. Bacteria, on the other hand, are single-celled organisms that can exist independently of other living things. They are found in Soil, water, and the air, and they can also live on or inside the bodies of animals and plants.

What are the different types of viruses?

There are many different types of viruses, but they can be broadly divided into two groups: DNA viruses and RNA viruses. DNA viruses contain their genetic material in the form of DNA, while RNA viruses contain their genetic material in the form of RNA. DNA viruses are generally more stable than RNA viruses, and they can also be more difficult to treat with antiviral drugs.

How do viruses spread?

Viruses can spread in a variety of ways, depending on the type of virus. Some viruses, such as the flu virus, are spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes. Other viruses, such as the HIV virus, are spread through contact with infected blood or body fluids. Still other viruses, such as the herpes virus, can be spread through contact with infected skin or mucous membranes.

What are the symptoms of a viral infection?

The symptoms of a viral infection can vary depending on the type of virus. Some common symptoms of viral infections include fever, headache, muscle aches, and fatigue. Other symptoms may include sore throat, cough, runny nose, and diarrhea. In some cases, viral infections can also cause more serious symptoms, such as pneumonia, meningitis, or encephalitis.

How are viral infections treated?

There is no cure for most viral infections. Treatment is usually aimed at relieving the symptoms and supporting the body’s immune system. In some cases, antiviral drugs may be used to treat viral infections. Antiviral drugs work by interfering with the virus’s ability to replicate.

How can I prevent viral infections?

The best way to prevent viral infections is to practice good hygiene. This includes washing your hands often, avoiding contact with people who are sick, and getting vaccinated against certain viruses. You can also reduce your risk of getting a viral infection by eating a healthy diet, getting enough sleep, and exercising regularly.

What is the outlook for people with viral infections?

The outlook for people with viral infections varies depending on the type of virus and the person’s overall Health. Most viral infections are mild and go away on their own within a few days or weeks. However, some viral infections can be serious, especially in people with weakened immune systems. In rare cases, viral infections can be fatal.

What is the future of viral research?

Viral research is a rapidly growing field, and scientists are making new discoveries all the time. One of the most important areas of research is the development of new antiviral drugs. Scientists are also working to develop Vaccines against more viruses, and they are studying ways to improve the body’s immune response to viral infections.

Sure, here are some MCQs on the following topics:

• The Indus Valley Civilization:

• The Indus Valley Civilization was located in:
  (a) India
  (b) Pakistan
  (c) Afghanistan
  (d) Iran

• The Indus Valley Civilization was a major civilization that flourished from about 2600 to 1900 BCE. It was located in the Indus River valley, which is now part of Pakistan and India. The Indus Valley Civilization was one of the earliest urban civilizations in the world. It was a complex Society with a well-developed System of Government, religion, and trade.

• The Indus Valley Civilization was a major center of Trade and Commerce. It traded with other civilizations in the Middle East, Central Asia, and Europe. The Indus Valley Civilization was also a major center of manufacturing. It produced a variety of goods, including Pottery, metalwork, and jewelry.

• The Indus Valley Civilization declined around 1900 BCE. The reasons for its decline are not fully understood, but it may have been due to a combination of factors, such as Climate change, war, or internal conflict.

• The Aryans:

• The Aryans were a group of Indo-European peoples who migrated to India from Central Asia around 1500 BCE. They brought with them their language, culture, and religion. The Aryans are believed to be the ancestors of the modern-day Hindus.

• The Aryans were a warrior people who conquered the Indus Valley Civilization. They imposed their language, culture, and religion on the local Population. The Aryans also introduced the caste system to India.

• The Aryans were a major force in the development of Indian civilization. They were responsible for the development of Hinduism-2/”>Hinduism, the caste system, and the Sanskrit language. The Aryans also played a major role in the spread of Indian culture to other parts of Asia.

• The Mauryan Empire:

• The Mauryan Empire was the largest empire in Indian history. It was founded by Chandragupta Maurya in the 4th century BCE. The Mauryan Empire reached its peak under the rule of Ashoka the Great in the 3rd century BCE.

• The Mauryan Empire was a major center of learning and culture. It was also a major power in the region. The Mauryan Empire was able to conquer and control a large territory due to its strong military and efficient administration.

• The Mauryan Empire declined in the 2nd century BCE. The reasons for its decline are not fully understood, but it may have been due to a combination of factors, such as internal conflict, economic problems, and foreign invasion.

• The Gupta Empire:

• The Gupta Empire was a golden age in Indian history. It was founded by Chandragupta I in the 4th century CE. The Gupta Empire reached its peak under the rule of Samudragupta in the 4th century CE.

• The Gupta Empire was a major center of learning and culture. It was also a major power in the region. The Gupta Empire was able to conquer and control a large territory due to its strong military and efficient administration.

• The Gupta Empire declined in the 6th century CE. The reasons for its decline are not fully understood, but it may have been due to a combination of factors, such as internal conflict, economic problems, and foreign invasion.

• The Mughal Empire:

• The Mughal Empire was the largest empire in Indian history. It was founded by Babur in the 16th century CE. The Mughal Empire reached its peak under the rule of Akbar the Great in the 16th century CE.

• The Mughal Empire was a major center of learning and culture. It was also a major power in the region. The Mughal Empire was able to conquer and control a large territory due to its strong military and efficient administration.

• The Mughal Empire declined in the 18th century CE. The reasons for its decline are not fully understood, but it may have been due to a combination of factors, such as internal conflict, economic problems, and foreign invasion.

I hope this helps!