Hormones - Plant hormones and growth regulation.Animal hormones and their functions.

HORMONES

Hormones are chemical messengers that are secreted directly into the blood, which carries them to organs and Tissues of the body to exert their functions. There are many types of hormones that act on different aspects of bodily functions and processes. Some of these include:

Development and Growth
Metabolism of food items
Sexual function and reproductive growth and Health
Cognitive function
Mood Maintenance of body temperature and thirst

Animal hormones

Endocrine System is the system formed by ductless glands which secrete chemical substances called as hormones. Endocrine Glands release hormones directly into the blood.

Endocrine glands Different types of endocrine glands present in our body are the pituitary gland, the pineal gland, the hypothalamus, the thyroid, the parathyroid, the thymus, the adrenal gland, the pancreas, the testes and the ovary.

The pituitary gland

It is a pea-shaped gland located at the base of the brain.
It is considered to be master gland as it secretes many hormones to regulate the organs as well as the other glands.
Different hormones secreted by this gland include Growth hormone, TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, MSH, Vasopressin and Oxytocin.

The hypothalamus

It is a neuro-endocrine part of the brain.
It links the nervous system and the endocrine system through the pituitary gland.
Different hormones secreted by this gland include TRH, GnRH, GHRH, CRH, Stomatostatin, Dopamine.

The thyroid gland

It is located in the neck, ventral to the larynx.
It is the one of the largest endocrine glands.
The principal hormones produced by this gland are triiodothyronine and thyroxine.

Thyroxine is a hormone that regulates the metabolism of Carbohydrates, proteins and fats in the body. Hyposecretion of thyroxine leads to cretinin in children, and myxoedema in adults. Hypersecretion of thyroxine leads to exopthalmic goitre in adults. Goitre is caused due to deficiency of iodine in food. Iodine is essential for the synthesis of thyroxine.

Parathyroid glands

These are two pairs of small, oval-shaped glands embedded on the dorsal surface of the thyroid gland present in the neck.
They secrete parathormone.
Parathormone helps in regulation of calcium and phosphate ions in the bones and blood.
Hyposecretion leads to parathyroid tetany and hypersecretion causes osteoporosis.

The adrenal glands

These are located above the kidneys and hence are called as suprarenal glands.
Two regions of the adrenal gland are adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla.
Adrenal cortex secretes the hormones like cortisol, aldosterone and androgens.
Adrenal medulla secretes the hormones like adrenaline and noradrenaline.
Adrenaline is also called the “hormone of fight or flight,” or the emergency hormone.
It prepares the body to face an emergency condition of physical Stress, like danger, anger and excitement.

The pancreas

It is located just below the stomach within the curve of the duodenum.
It is both exocrine and endocrine in function.
It secretes hormones such as insulin, glucagon, somatostatin and pancreatic polypeptide.
Insulin regulates the sugar level in our blood. Insulin secreted in small amounts increases the sugar level in our blood which in turn causes a disease called diabetes mellitus.

Gonads

Two types of gonads present in human beings are female gonads and male gonads. Female gonads
A pair of ovaries forms the gonads in female.
Ovaries are the female sex organs that lie one on either side of the abdominal cavity. Ovaries produce two hormones, namely, oestrogen and progesterone.
Oestrogen controls the changes that occur during puberty, like feminine voice, soft skin and development in mammary glands.
Progesterone controls the uterine changes in the menstrual cycle, and helps in the maintenance of pregnancy.

Male gonads

A pair of testes forms the gonads in males.
A pair of testes is the male sex organ located in the scrotum, which is outside the abdomen.
Testes produce the hormone testosterone.
Testosterone controls the changes, which occur during puberty, like deeper voice, development of penis, facial and body hair.

The pineal gland

It is located near the centre of the brain, dorsal to the diencephalon.
It produces the hormone melatonin.
Melatonin affects reproductive development, modulation of wake and sleep patterns, and seasonal functions.

The thymus gland

It is located in front of the heart, in the upper part of the sternum.
It produces the hormone thymosine.
It helps in the maturation of T-lymphocytes.

Plant hormones

Plant hormones are signal Molecules produced within the plant, and occur in extremely low concentrations. Hormones regulate cellular processes in targeted cells locally and, moved to other locations, in other functional parts of the plant. Hormones also determine the formation of flowers, stems, leaves, the shedding of leaves, and the development and ripening of fruit.

There are five major types of plant hormones: auxin, gibberellin, cytokinin, ethylene, and abscisic acid.

Auxins

Auxins are a powerful growth hormone produced naturally by Plants. They are found in shoot and root tips and promote cell division, stem and root growth. They can also drastically affect plant orientation by promoting cell division to one side of the plant in response to sunlight and gravity.

Auxins have four key effects on plant growth:

Stimulating shoot elongation: Auxins positively influence gibberlins that promote cell elongation. This increases plant length. Essentially, gibberlins and thereby auxins, increase the distance between nodes, spacing the branch points further apart.
Controlling seedling orientation: It was the infamous Charles Darwin and his son Francis who first noticed that seedlings bend toward the Light. However, whether a new shoot grows into the Soil or towards light, depends on where auxins are located and how they influence cells within the plant. Auxins will move downward due to gravity and laterally, away from light. Cells grow more in areas of the plant where auxins are highly concentrated.
Stimulating root branching : When an auxin is applied to a cut stem, the stem will initiate roots at the cut.
Promoting fruit development: Auxins in the flower promote maturation of the ovary wall and promote steps in the full development of the fruit.

Auxins can be produced naturally (by the plant) or synthetically (in a lab). When produced synthetically, they can be used in high concentrations as a pesticide, causing drastic growth. The herbicide, 2-4-D, is an example of an auxin-based pesticide, specifically engineered to cause dicots (plants like dandelions) to grow quickly and uncontrollably, ultimately killing the plant.

Gibberellin: Gibberellin causes some similar effects in plants as auxin, but it is a very different hormone. Gibberellins were discovered originally in Japan. A fungus called Gibberella fujikuroi infected rice plants and caused them to grow too tall and fall over. The infectious fungus produced a chemical that stimulated the growth in rice plants. The chemical was isolated and named Gibberellin after the fungus. It was later found that plants naturally produce variations of these chemicals! Gibberellins play an important role in several developmental stages in plants, but their claim to fame is making stems longer. Gibberellins promote stem elongation between nodes on the stem. A node is a place on a stem where a leaf attaches, so gibberellins elongate the internodes. It is easiest to see the absence of gibberellin in dwarf plants and rosette plants – there is very little space between nodes on a stem and the leaves are clustered toward the base of the plant. What’s the big deal about knowing how to control stem elongation in plants? Well, when would it be beneficial to know how to make a plant stem shorter or longer? Biologists can prevent plants in a greenhouse from making gibberellins to keep them a manageable size. That’s handy. Or what if you’re a farmer and your business is something that comes from the stem of a plant? Longer stems would mean more profit for you, right? Gibberellins sprayed on sugar cane in Hawaii elongate the stem between the nodes. Longer stems mean more stored sugar. More sugar to sell means more coin! Knowing about plant hormones just makes cents.

Cytokinins: Cytokinins are a group of hormones that promote cell division in plant roots and shoots and the growth of buds. These hormones have been found in all complex plants as well as mosses, Fungi, and bacteria. There are about 200 different natural and synthetic cytokinins known to botanists today. Most cytokinins are produced in the meristem of the roots. Meristem is the name for a region of tissue within the plant that actively promotes cell division. In other words, the meristem is any place that’s still growing (like the tip of the roots or the top of the stem). Once the cytokinin has been produced in the roots, it travels up the xylem, or vascular tissue, to other parts of the plant where continued growth takes place (such as young leaves, developing fruits, and seeds).

Cytokinins increase cell division by stimulating the production of proteins needed for mitosis. Mitosis is non-sexual cell division that occurs in all living things producing additional cells for body growth. In your body, mitosis is occurring every day, replacing dead and damaged cells and allowing for growth. If you skin your knee, it’s mitosis that grows back the cells you lost. In plants, mitosis creates additional cells that make the plants grow. If you have ever played with building blocks that snap together, you can think of them like plant cells. Every time the process of mitosis occurs, a new cell is formed and moved to the end of the plant making it longer or taller (just like adding a building block to your structure).

Ethylene: Ethylene serves as a hormone in plants. It acts at trace levels throughout the life of the plant by stimulating or regulating the ripening of fruit, the opening of flowers, and the abscission (or shedding) of leaves. Commercial ripening rooms use “catalytic generators” to make ethylene gas from a liquid supply of ethanol. Typically, a gassing level of 500 to 2,000 ppm is used, for 24 to 48 hours. Care must be taken to control carbon dioxide levels in ripening rooms when gassing, as high temperature ripening (20 °C; 68 °F) has been seen to produce CO2 levels of 10% in 24 hours.

Ethylene is produced from essentially all parts of higher plants, including leaves, stems, roots, flowers, fruits, tubers, and seeds. Ethylene production is regulated by a variety of developmental and environmental factors. During the life of the plant, ethylene production is induced during certain stages of growth such as germination, ripening of fruits, abscission of leaves, and senescence of flowers. Ethylene production can also be induced by a variety of external aspects such as mechanical wounding, environmental stresses, and certain chemicals including auxin and other regulators. The pathway for ethylene biosynthesis is named the Yang cycle after the scientist Shang Fa Yang who made key contributions to elucidating this pathway.

Abscisic acid: Abscisic acid, is involved in many developmental plant processes, including leaf abscission, responding to environmental stress, and inhibiting fruit ripening. Abscisic acid is produced in the roots of the plant as well as the terminal buds at the top of the plant.

Functions of Abscisic Acid: The following are some of the physiological responses known to be associated with abscisic acid:

Stimulates the closure of stomata (water stress brings about an increase in ABA synthesis).
Inhibits shoot growth but will not have as much affect on roots or may even promote growth of roots. Induces seeds to synthesize storage proteins.
Inhibits the affect of gibberellins on stimulating de novo synthesis of a-amylase.
It Has some effect on induction and maintanance of dormancy.
It Induces gene transcription especially for proteinase inhibitors in response to wounding which may explain an apparent role in pathogen defense.

Hormones are chemical messengers that are produced in one part of the body and transported to another part of the body, where they exert their effects. Hormones play a vital role in regulating many physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, Reproduction, and behavior.

Plant hormones are a group of chemicals that regulate plant growth and development. They are produced in specific parts of the plant and transported to other parts of the plant, where they exert their effects. Plant hormones are essential for the normal growth and development of plants.

There are six main types of plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, abscisic acid, ethylene, and brassinosteroids.

Auxins are involved in the regulation of plant growth. They promote cell elongation and cell division. Auxins also play a role in the development of roots and shoots.
Gibberellins are involved in the regulation of plant growth and development. They promote stem elongation, leaf expansion, and seed germination. Gibberellins also play a role in the flowering process.
Cytokinins are involved in the regulation of cell division and differentiation. They promote cell division and the development of new leaves. Cytokinins also play a role in the aging process.
Abscisic acid is involved in the regulation of plant growth and development. It inhibits seed germination and bud growth. Abscisic acid also plays a role in the response of plants to stress.
Ethylene is involved in the regulation of fruit ripening and abscission. It also plays a role in the response of plants to stress.
Brassinosteroids are involved in the regulation of plant growth and development. They promote cell elongation and cell division. Brassinosteroids also play a role in the development of roots and shoots.

Animal hormones are chemical messengers that are produced in one part of the body and transported to another part of the body, where they exert their effects. Animal hormones play a vital role in regulating many physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and behavior.

There are many different types of animal hormones, each with its own specific function. Some of the most important animal hormones include:

Growth hormone (GH) is a hormone that is produced by the pituitary gland. GH stimulates the growth of bones and tissues.
Thyroid hormones are hormones that are produced by the thyroid gland. Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism and growth.
Parathyroid hormone (PTH) is a hormone that is produced by the parathyroid glands. PTH regulates blood calcium levels.
Calcitonin is a hormone that is produced by the thyroid gland. Calcitonin regulates blood calcium levels.
Adrenal hormones are hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands. Adrenal hormones regulate the stress response, metabolism, and blood pressure.
Pancreas hormones are hormones that are produced by the pancreas. Pancreas hormones regulate blood sugar levels.
Gonadotropins are hormones that are produced by the pituitary gland. Gonadotropins stimulate the production of sex hormones.
Sex hormones are hormones that are produced by the gonads (ovaries and testes). Sex hormones regulate sexual development and function.
Melatonin is a hormone that is produced by the pineal gland. Melatonin regulates sleep and wakefulness.
Epinephrine and norepinephrine are hormones that are produced by the adrenal glands. Epinephrine and norepinephrine regulate the stress response.
Atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) is a hormone that is produced by the heart. ANP regulates blood pressure.
Cortisol is a hormone that is produced by the adrenal glands. Cortisol regulates metabolism and the stress response.
Insulin is a hormone that is produced by the pancreas. Insulin regulates blood sugar levels.
Glucagon is a hormone that is produced by the pancreas. Glucagon regulates blood sugar levels.
Somatostatin is a hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus and the pancreas. Somatostatin inhibits the release of many hormones.
Vasopressin is a hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus. Vasopressin regulates blood pressure and water balance.
Oxytocin is a hormone that is produced by the hypothalamus. Oxytocin is involved in childbirth and breastfeeding.

Hormones are essential for the normal functioning of the body. They regulate many physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and behavior.

Plant hormones and growth regulation

What are plant hormones?
Plant hormones are chemical messengers that regulate plant growth and development. They are produced in small amounts in specific parts of the plant and transported to other parts of the plant, where they exert their effects.
What are the different types of plant hormones?
There are five main types of plant hormones: auxins, gibberellins, cytokinins, ethylene, and abscisic acid.
What are the functions of plant hormones?
Plant hormones regulate a wide range of plant processes, including growth, development, flowering, fruit ripening, and response to environmental stress.
How do plant hormones work?
Plant hormones work by binding to receptors on plant cells. This binding triggers a series of events inside the cell, which ultimately lead to the desired response.
What are some examples of plant hormones and their effects?
Some examples of plant hormones and their effects include:
Auxins promote cell elongation and growth.
Gibberellins promote stem elongation, leaf expansion, and seed germination.
Cytokinins promote cell division and differentiation.
Ethylene promotes fruit ripening and abscission (leaf fall).
Abscisic acid inhibits growth and promotes dormancy.

Animal hormones and their functions

What are animal hormones?
Animal hormones are chemical messengers that are produced in one part of the body and transported to another part of the body, where they exert their effects. Hormones regulate a wide range of physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and behavior.
What are the different types of animal hormones?
There are many different types of animal hormones, but they can be broadly divided into two groups: peptide hormones and steroid hormones.
Peptide hormones are made up of chains of amino acids. They are produced by the endocrine glands, which are ductless glands that secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Some examples of peptide hormones include insulin, glucagon, and growth hormone.
Steroid hormones are made up of cholesterol. They are produced by the adrenal glands, the ovaries, and the testes. Steroid hormones act on specific receptors in cells, which then trigger a series of events that lead to the desired response. Some examples of steroid hormones include cortisol, testosterone, and estrogen.
What are the functions of animal hormones?
Animal hormones regulate a wide range of physiological processes, including growth, development, metabolism, reproduction, and behavior. Some specific examples of the functions of animal hormones include:
Insulin helps the body to use glucose for energy.
Glucagon raises blood sugar levels.
Growth hormone stimulates growth and development.
Cortisol helps the body to respond to stress.
Testosterone promotes male sexual development and function.
Estrogen promotes female sexual development and function.

Which of the following is not a plant hormone?
(A) Auxin
(B) Gibberellin
(C) Cytokinin
(D) Estrogen
Which of the following is not an animal hormone?
(A) Insulin
(B) Testosterone
(C) Estrogen
(D) Adrenaline
Which of the following is the most important plant hormone for cell elongation?
(A) Auxin
(B) Gibberellin
(C) Cytokinin
(D) Ethylene
Which of the following is the most important plant hormone for seed germination?
(A) Auxin
(B) Gibberellin
(C) Cytokinin
(D) Ethylene
Which of the following is the most important plant hormone for fruit ripening?
(A) Auxin
(B) Gibberellin
(C) Cytokinin
(D) Ethylene
Which of the following is the most important animal hormone for growth and development?
(A) Insulin
(B) Testosterone
(C) Estrogen
(D) Growth hormone
Which of the following is the most important animal hormone for reproduction?
(A) Insulin
(B) Testosterone
(C) Estrogen
(D) Luteinizing hormone
Which of the following is the most important animal hormone for stress response?
(A) Insulin
(B) Testosterone
(C) Estrogen
(D) Adrenaline
Which of the following is the most important animal hormone for blood sugar regulation?
(A) Insulin
(B) Testosterone
(C) Estrogen
(D) Glucagon
Which of the following is the most important animal hormone for milk production?
(A) Insulin
(B) Testosterone
(C) Estrogen
(D) Prolactin