Introduction and application of Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid Molecules in order to modify an organism or Population of organisms.
The term genetic engineering initially referred to various techniques used for the modification or manipulation of organisms through the processes of heredity and Reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques, among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (e.g., “test-tube” babies), cloning, and gene manipulation. In the latter part of the 20th century, however, the term came to refer more specifically to methods of recombinant DNA technology (or gene cloning), in which DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined either within cells or in vitro and are then inserted into host organisms in which they are able to propagate.
The possibility for recombinant DNA technology emerged with the discovery of restriction ENZYMES in 1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber. The following year American microbiologist Hamilton O. Smith purified so-called type II restriction enzymes, which were found to be essential to genetic engineering for their ability to cleave a specific site within the DNA (as opposed to type I restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA at random sites). Drawing on Smith’s work, American molecular biologist Daniel Nathans helped advance the technique of DNA recombination in 1970–71 and demonstrated that type II enzymes could be useful in genetic studies. Genetic engineering based on recombination was pioneered in 1973 by American biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer, who were among the first to cut DNA into fragments, rejoin different fragments, and insert the new genes into E. coli bacteria, which then reproduced.
Process And Techniques
Most recombinant DNA technology involves the insertion of foreign genes into the plasmids of common laboratory strains of bacteria. Plasmids are small rings of DNA; they are not part of the bacterium’s chromosome (the main repository of the organism’s genetic information). Nonetheless, they are capable of directing Protein Synthesis, and, like chromosomal DNA, they are reproduced and passed on to the bacterium’s progeny. Thus, by incorporating foreign DNA (for example, a mammalian gene) into a bacterium, researchers can obtain an almost limitless number of copies of the inserted gene. Furthermore, if the inserted gene is operative (i.e., if it directs protein synthesis), the modified bacterium will produce the protein specified by the foreign DNA.
A subsequent generation of genetic engineering techniques that emerged in the early 21st century centred on gene editing. Gene editing, based on a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9, allows researchers to customize a living organism’s genetic sequence by making very specific changes to its DNA. Gene editing has a wide array of applications, being used for the genetic modification of crop Plants and Livestock and of laboratory model organisms (e.g., mice). The correction of genetic errors associated with disease in animals suggests that gene editing has potential applications in gene therapy for humans.
Applications Genetic engineering
Neither the use of animal Vaccines nor adding bovine Growth HORMONES to cows to dramatically increase milk production can match the real excitement in animal husbandry: Transgenic animals and clones. Transgenic animals model advancements in DNA technology in their development. The mechanism for creating one can be described in three steps:
- Healthy egg cells are removed from a female of the host animal and fertilized in the laboratory.
- The desired gene from another species is identified, isolated, and cloned.
- The cloned genes are injected directly into the eggs, which are then surgically implanted in the host female, where the embryo undergoes a normal development process.
Control of Oil Pollution
Oil spills from oil tankers either on water or water surfaces cause a major environmental hazard. Earlier use of chemical dispersants was shown to cause major pollution in shallow water due to their toxic nature and prolong persistence in the Environment.
Various species of Pseudomonas have the property to consume available hydrocarbons from oil and can produce active surface compounds that can emulsify oil in water and thus facilitate easy removal of oil. Dr. Ananda Chakrobarty has engineered a strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa which produces a glycolipid emulsifier that reduces the Surface Tension of an oil-water interface and thus helps in removal of oil from water.
Many such genetically engineered microbes can be used by mixing with straw, which then will be scattered over the spilled oil, the straw will first soak oily water and then the microbes will break up the oil into non-toxic, non-polluting substances, rendering the environment harmless.
Control of Heavy Metal Pollution
Integrated management of polluted ecosystem by the use of diverse kind of organisms which restore the natural process in the ecosystem is called bioremediation. Application of genetically engineered organisms, specially plants in bioremediation, to rid contaminated Soil from heavy metal toxicity has proved encouraging.
Use of Bio-Pesticides
In developing countries, about 60 to 70% of food, during harvesting and post-harvested period is lost on account of pests. Majority of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers cause numerous hazards, because these substances release various pollutants in the environment. To minimise the use of chemicals and pesticides, bio-pesticides are being used.
These are compounds derived from natural biological sources like animals, plants; bacteria and can limit the growth of pests. For example, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are bio-pesticides produced by plants through genetic manipulation.
Medicine
Genetic engineering has resulted in a series of medical products. The first two commercially prepared products from recombinant DNA technology were insulin and human growth hormone, both of which were cultured in the E. coli bacteria. Since then a plethora of products have appeared on the market, including the following abbreviated list, all made in E. coli:
- Tumor necrosis factor. Treatment for certain tumor cells
- Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Cancer treatment, immune deficiency, and HIV infection treatment
- Treatment for heart attacks Taxol.
- Treatment for ovarian cancer Interferon. Treatment for cancer and viral infections
In addition, a number of vaccines are now commercially prepared from recombinant hosts. At one time vaccines were made by denaturing the disease and then injecting it into humans with the hope that it would activate their immune system to fight future intrusions by that invader. Unfortunately, the patient sometimes still ended up with the disease.
Crop plants have been and continue to be the focus of Biotechnology as efforts are made to improve yield and profitability by improving crop resistance to insects and certain herbicides and delaying ripening (for better transport and spoilage resistance). The creation of a transgenic plant, one that has received genes from another organism, proved more difficult than animals. Unlike animals, finding a vector for plants proved to be difficult until the isolation of the Ti plasmid, harvested from a tumor-inducing (Ti) bacteria found in the soil. The plasmid is “shot” into a cell, where the plasmid readily attaches to the plant’s DNA. Although successful in fruits and vegetables, the Ti plasmid has generated limited success in grain crops.
Creating a crop that is resistant to a specific herbicide proved to be a success because the herbicide eliminated weed competition from the crop plant. Researchers discovered herbicide-resistant bacteria, isolated the genes responsible for the condition, and “shot” them into a crop plant, which then proved to be resistant to that herbicide. Similarly, insect-resistant plants are becoming available as researchers discover bacterial enzymes that destroy or immobilize unwanted herbivores, and others that increase nitrogen fixation in the soil for use by plants.
Geneticists are on the threshold of a major agricultural breakthrough. All plants need nitrogen to grow. In fact, nitrogen is one of the three most important nutrients a plant requires. Although the Atmosphere is approximately 78 percent nitrogen, it is in a form that is unusable to plants. However, a naturally occurring rhizobium bacterium is found in the soil and converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also found naturally occurring in the legumes of certain plants such as soybeans and peanuts. Because they contain these unusual bacteria, they can grow in nitrogen-deficient soil that prohibits the growth of other crop plants. Researchers hope that by isolating these bacteria, they can identify the DNA segment that codes for nitrogen fixation, remove the segment, and insert it into the DNA of a profitable cash crop! In so doing, the new transgenic crop plants could live in new fringe territories, which are areas normally not suitable for their growth, and grow in current locations without the addition of costly Fertilizers.,
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. It is a powerful tool that has the potential to improve human Health, agriculture, and the environment. However, it also raises ethical concerns about the manipulation of life and the potential for unintended consequences.
Gene therapy is a type of genetic engineering that involves the introduction of genes into cells to treat or prevent disease. It has the potential to cure genetic diseases that are currently incurable, such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. However, it also raises ethical concerns about the safety of modifying human genes.
Genetic modification is a type of genetic engineering that involves the introduction of genes from one organism into another organism. This can be done to improve the characteristics of the recipient organism, such as its resistance to pests or diseases. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are already widely used in agriculture, and they have the potential to increase crop yields and reduce the use of pesticides. However, there are concerns about the safety of GMOs, and some people object to their use on ethical grounds.
Transgenic organisms are organisms that have been genetically modified by the introduction of genes from another species. This can be done to improve the characteristics of the organism, such as its resistance to pests or diseases. Transgenic organisms are already widely used in agriculture, and they have the potential to increase crop yields and reduce the use of pesticides. However, there are concerns about the safety of transgenic organisms, and some people object to their use on ethical grounds.
Cloning is a type of genetic engineering that involves the creation of an identical copy of an organism. This can be done by nuclear transfer, which involves removing the nucleus from an egg cell and replacing it with the nucleus from a somatic cell. Cloned animals have been created for research purposes, and there is the potential to clone humans in the future. However, there are ethical concerns about cloning humans, and it is currently illegal in many countries.
Gene editing is a type of genetic engineering that involves the precise modification of genes. This can be done using a variety of methods, such as CRISPR-Cas9. Gene editing has the potential to cure genetic diseases and improve human health. However, it also raises ethical concerns about the safety of modifying human genes.
CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene editing tool that has revolutionized the field of genetic engineering. It is a simple and efficient way to make precise changes to DNA. CRISPR-Cas9 has the potential to cure genetic diseases, improve crops, and develop new biofuels. However, it also raises ethical concerns about the safety of modifying human genes.
Gene drive is a technique that can be used to spread a gene through a population of organisms. This can be done by engineering an organism so that its offspring inherit the gene with a high Probability. Gene drive has the potential to control pests and diseases, but it also raises ethical concerns about the potential for unintended consequences.
Bioethics is the study of the ethical issues raised by advances in biology and medicine. Genetic engineering is one of the areas of biology that raises the most ethical concerns. Some of the ethical issues raised by genetic engineering include the safety of modifying human genes, the potential for unintended consequences, and the use of genetic engineering for non-therapeutic purposes.
The safety of genetic engineering is a major concern. Genetic engineering is a powerful tool, and it is important to ensure that it is used safely. There have been concerns about the potential for genetic engineering to create new diseases or to harm the environment. However, there is no evidence that genetic engineering has caused any harm to humans or the environment.
The potential for unintended consequences is another concern. Genetic engineering is a complex process, and it is difficult to predict all of the possible consequences of modifying an organism’s genes. There is a risk that genetic engineering could create new problems, such as new diseases or environmental problems. However, scientists are working to develop methods to reduce the risk of unintended consequences.
The use of genetic engineering for non-therapeutic purposes is another concern. Genetic engineering has the potential to be used for non-therapeutic purposes, such as improving crop yields or creating designer babies. Some people believe that it is unethical to use genetic engineering for non-therapeutic purposes. However, others believe that it is possible to use genetic engineering for non-therapeutic purposes in a safe and ethical way.
Genetic engineering is a powerful tool with the potential to improve human health, agriculture, and the environment. However, it also raises ethical concerns about the manipulation of life and the potential for unintended consequences. It is important to weigh the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering before making decisions about its use.
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. It is a powerful tool that can be used to improve crops, develop new medicines, and even create new organisms. However, genetic engineering also raises a number of ethical and safety concerns.
Here are some frequently asked questions about genetic engineering:
What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. This can be done by inserting new genes into an organism, or by removing or altering existing genes.What are the benefits of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering can be used to improve crops, develop new medicines, and even create new organisms. For example, genetic engineering has been used to develop crops that are resistant to pests and diseases. It has also been used to develop new medicines, such as insulin for people with diabetes.What are the risks of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering raises a number of ethical and safety concerns. For example, there is a risk that genetically modified organisms could escape into the environment and harm native species. There is also a risk that genetically modified foods could be harmful to human health.What is the future of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is a rapidly developing field, and it is likely that we will see even more applications for it in the future. However, it is important to carefully consider the risks and benefits of genetic engineering before using it.
Here are some issues related to genetic engineering:
- Safety: There is a risk that genetically modified organisms could escape into the environment and harm native species. There is also a risk that genetically modified foods could be harmful to human health.
- Ethics: Some people believe that it is unethical to modify the genes of living organisms. Others believe that it is important to use genetic engineering to improve human health and the environment.
- Regulation: There is no international agreement on the regulation of genetic engineering. Each country has its own laws and regulations governing the use of this technology.
Here are some impacts of genetic engineering on human life:
- Genetic engineering has the potential to improve human health by developing new medicines and treatments.
- Genetic engineering can also be used to improve crops and livestock, which could lead to increased food production.
- However, there are also risks associated with genetic engineering, such as the potential for environmental contamination and the development of new diseases.
- It is important to weigh the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering before making decisions about its use.
Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. It is a powerful tool that can be used to improve crops, develop new medicines, and even create new organisms. However, genetic engineering also raises ethical concerns, and there is debate about the potential risks of this technology.
Issues related to genetic engineering
There are a number of issues related to genetic engineering. One concern is that genetic engineering could be used to create “designer babies,” with parents choosing the traits of their children. This could lead to a Society where some people are considered to be more valuable than others based on their genetic makeup.
Another concern is that genetic engineering could be used to create “superweeds” or “superbugs” that are resistant to herbicides or antibiotics. This could have serious consequences for agriculture and public health.
Finally, there is the concern that genetic engineering could have unintended consequences that we are not yet aware of. For example, it is possible that genetically modified organisms could cross-pollinate with wild plants, creating new and unpredictable hybrids.
The impact of genetic engineering on human life
Genetic engineering has the potential to have a profound impact on human life. It can be used to improve crops, develop new medicines, and even create new organisms. However, there are also risks associated with genetic engineering, and it is important to weigh the potential benefits and risks before using this technology.
MCQs
Genetic engineering is the process of:
(a) modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology.
(b) creating new organisms by combining the genes of different species.
(c) developing new medicines by using the genes of organisms.
(d) all of the above.One concern about genetic engineering is that it could be used to create:
(a) designer babies.
(b) superweeds.
(c) superbugs.
(d) all of the above.Genetic engineering has the potential to:
(a) improve crops.
(b) develop new medicines.
(c) create new organisms.
(d) all of the above.There are also risks associated with genetic engineering, such as:
(a) the creation of “designer babies”.
(b) the creation of “superweeds” or “superbugs”.
(c) the unintended consequences of genetic engineering.
(d) all of the above.It is important to weigh the potential benefits and risks of genetic engineering before using this technology.
(a) True
(b) False