Introduction and application of Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid Molecules in order to modify an organism or Population of organisms.
The term genetic engineering initially referred to various techniques used for the modification or manipulation of organisms through the processes of heredity and Reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques, among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (e.g., “test-tube” babies), cloning, and gene manipulation. In the latter part of the 20th century, however, the term came to refer more specifically to methods of recombinant DNA technology (or gene cloning), in which DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined either within cells or in vitro and are then inserted into host organisms in which they are able to propagate.
The possibility for recombinant DNA technology emerged with the discovery of restriction ENZYMES in 1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber. The following year American microbiologist Hamilton O. Smith purified so-called type II restriction enzymes, which were found to be essential to genetic engineering for their ability to cleave a specific site within the DNA (as opposed to type I restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA at random sites). Drawing on Smith’s work, American molecular biologist Daniel Nathans helped advance the technique of DNA recombination in 1970–71 and demonstrated that type II enzymes could be useful in genetic studies. Genetic engineering based on recombination was pioneered in 1973 by American biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer, who were among the first to cut DNA into fragments, rejoin different fragments, and insert the new genes into E. coli bacteria, which then reproduced.
Process And Techniques
Most recombinant DNA technology involves the insertion of foreign genes into the plasmids of common laboratory strains of bacteria. Plasmids are small rings of DNA; they are not part of the bacterium’s chromosome (the main repository of the organism’s genetic information). Nonetheless, they are capable of directing Protein Synthesis, and, like chromosomal DNA, they are reproduced and passed on to the bacterium’s progeny. Thus, by incorporating foreign DNA (for example, a mammalian gene) into a bacterium, researchers can obtain an almost limitless number of copies of the inserted gene. Furthermore, if the inserted gene is operative (i.e., if it directs protein synthesis), the modified bacterium will produce the protein specified by the foreign DNA.
A subsequent generation of genetic engineering techniques that emerged in the early 21st century centred on gene editing. Gene editing, based on a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9, allows researchers to customize a living organism’s genetic sequence by making very specific changes to its DNA. Gene editing has a wide array of applications, being used for the genetic modification of crop Plants and Livestock and of laboratory model organisms (e.g., mice). The correction of genetic errors associated with disease in animals suggests that gene editing has potential applications in gene therapy for humans.
Applications Genetic engineering
Neither the use of animal Vaccines nor adding bovine Growth HORMONES to cows to dramatically increase milk production can match the real excitement in animal husbandry: Transgenic animals and clones. Transgenic animals model advancements in DNA technology in their development. The mechanism for creating one can be described in three steps:
- Healthy egg cells are removed from a female of the host animal and fertilized in the laboratory.
- The desired gene from another species is identified, isolated, and cloned.
- The cloned genes are injected directly into the eggs, which are then surgically implanted in the host female, where the embryo undergoes a normal development process.
Control of Oil Pollution
Oil spills from oil tankers either on water or water surfaces cause a major environmental hazard. Earlier use of chemical dispersants was shown to cause major pollution in shallow water due to their toxic nature and prolong persistence in the Environment.
Various species of Pseudomonas have the property to consume available hydrocarbons from oil and can produce active surface compounds that can emulsify oil in water and thus facilitate easy removal of oil. Dr. Ananda Chakrobarty has engineered a strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa which produces a glycolipid emulsifier that reduces the Surface Tension of an oil-water interface and thus helps in removal of oil from water.
Many such genetically engineered microbes can be used by mixing with straw, which then will be scattered over the spilled oil, the straw will first soak oily water and then the microbes will break up the oil into non-toxic, non-polluting substances, rendering the environment harmless.
Control of Heavy Metal Pollution
Integrated management of polluted ecosystem by the use of diverse kind of organisms which restore the natural process in the ecosystem is called bioremediation. Application of genetically engineered organisms, specially plants in bioremediation, to rid contaminated Soil from heavy metal toxicity has proved encouraging.
Use of Bio-Pesticides
In developing countries, about 60 to 70% of food, during harvesting and post-harvested period is lost on account of pests. Majority of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers cause numerous hazards, because these substances release various pollutants in the environment. To minimise the use of chemicals and pesticides, bio-pesticides are being used.
These are compounds derived from natural biological sources like animals, plants; bacteria and can limit the growth of pests. For example, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are bio-pesticides produced by plants through genetic manipulation.
Medicine
Genetic engineering has resulted in a series of medical products. The first two commercially prepared products from recombinant DNA technology were insulin and human growth hormone, both of which were cultured in the E. coli bacteria. Since then a plethora of products have appeared on the market, including the following abbreviated list, all made in E. coli:
- Tumor necrosis factor. Treatment for certain tumor cells
- Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Cancer treatment, immune deficiency, and HIV infection treatment
- Treatment for heart attacks Taxol.
- Treatment for ovarian cancer Interferon. Treatment for cancer and viral infections
In addition, a number of vaccines are now commercially prepared from recombinant hosts. At one time vaccines were made by denaturing the disease and then injecting it into humans with the hope that it would activate their immune system to fight future intrusions by that invader. Unfortunately, the patient sometimes still ended up with the disease.
Crop plants have been and continue to be the focus of Biotechnology as efforts are made to improve yield and profitability by improving crop resistance to insects and certain herbicides and delaying ripening (for better transport and spoilage resistance). The creation of a transgenic plant, one that has received genes from another organism, proved more difficult than animals. Unlike animals, finding a vector for plants proved to be difficult until the isolation of the Ti plasmid, harvested from a tumor-inducing (Ti) bacteria found in the soil. The plasmid is “shot” into a cell, where the plasmid readily attaches to the plant’s DNA. Although successful in fruits and vegetables, the Ti plasmid has generated limited success in grain crops.
Creating a crop that is resistant to a specific herbicide proved to be a success because the herbicide eliminated weed competition from the crop plant. Researchers discovered herbicide-resistant bacteria, isolated the genes responsible for the condition, and “shot” them into a crop plant, which then proved to be resistant to that herbicide. Similarly, insect-resistant plants are becoming available as researchers discover bacterial enzymes that destroy or immobilize unwanted herbivores, and others that increase nitrogen fixation in the soil for use by plants.
Geneticists are on the threshold of a major agricultural breakthrough. All plants need nitrogen to grow. In fact, nitrogen is one of the three most important nutrients a plant requires. Although the Atmosphere is approximately 78 percent nitrogen, it is in a form that is unusable to plants. However, a naturally occurring rhizobium bacterium is found in the soil and converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also found naturally occurring in the legumes of certain plants such as soybeans and peanuts. Because they contain these unusual bacteria, they can grow in nitrogen-deficient soil that prohibits the growth of other crop plants. Researchers hope that by isolating these bacteria, they can identify the DNA segment that codes for nitrogen fixation, remove the segment, and insert it into the DNA of a profitable cash crop! In so doing, the new transgenic crop plants could live in new fringe territories, which are areas normally not suitable for their growth, and grow in current locations without the addition of costly Fertilizers.,
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. It is a powerful tool that has the potential to improve human Health and well-being, as well as to increase crop yields and create new industrial products. However, genetic engineering also raises a number of ethical and safety concerns.
One of the most common methods of genetic engineering is gene cloning. This involves inserting a gene from one organism into the DNA of another organism. Gene cloning has been used to create bacteria that produce human insulin, a hormone that is used to treat diabetes. It has also been used to create crops that are resistant to pests and diseases.
Another common method of genetic engineering is gene editing. This involves using enzymes to cut and paste DNA sequences. Gene editing has been used to correct genetic defects that cause diseases such as cystic fibrosis and sickle cell anemia. It has also been used to create crops that are more nutritious and to develop new biofuels.
Gene therapy is a type of genetic engineering that involves using genes to treat or prevent disease. Gene therapy has been used to treat children with a rare genetic disorder called SCID, or severe combined immunodeficiency. It has also been used to treat cancer patients.
Genetic modification is a type of genetic engineering that involves changing the genes of an organism in order to improve its characteristics. Genetic modification has been used to create crops that are resistant to pests and diseases, as well as to create livestock that are more efficient at producing meat and milk.
Genetic screening is a type of genetic testing that is used to identify people who are at risk for developing genetic diseases. Genetic screening can be used to identify people who are carriers of genetic diseases, as well as to identify people who have already developed a genetic disease.
Genetic testing is a type of medical test that is used to identify changes in genes. Genetic testing can be used to diagnose genetic diseases, as well as to identify people who are at risk for developing genetic diseases.
Genetic engineering has the potential to improve human health and well-being in a number of ways. For example, genetic engineering can be used to develop new drugs and therapies to treat diseases. It can also be used to create new vaccines to prevent diseases. Additionally, genetic engineering can be used to develop new diagnostic tests to identify diseases early.
Genetic engineering also has the potential to increase crop yields and create new industrial products. For example, genetic engineering can be used to create crops that are resistant to pests and diseases. It can also be used to create crops that are more nutritious. Additionally, genetic engineering can be used to create new biofuels and other industrial products.
However, genetic engineering also raises a number of ethical and safety concerns. One concern is that genetic engineering could be used to create “designer babies,” or babies who have been genetically engineered to have certain desired traits. Another concern is that genetic engineering could be used to create “superweeds” or “superbugs,” which are organisms that are resistant to herbicides or antibiotics. Additionally, there is concern that genetic engineering could have unintended consequences on the environment.
Despite the risks, genetic engineering is a powerful tool that has the potential to improve human health and well-being. It is important to carefully consider the ethical and safety implications of genetic engineering before using it.
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. It is a powerful tool that can be used to improve crop yields, develop new medicines, and even create new organisms. However, genetic engineering also raises ethical concerns, and there is debate about the potential risks of this technology.
Here are some frequently asked questions about genetic engineering:
What is genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. This can be done by inserting new genes into an organism, or by removing or altering existing genes.What are the benefits of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering can be used to improve crop yields, develop new medicines, and even create new organisms. For example, genetic engineering has been used to develop crops that are resistant to pests and diseases. This has helped to increase crop yields and reduce the use of pesticides. Genetic engineering has also been used to develop new medicines, such as insulin for people with diabetes.What are the risks of genetic engineering?
There are some potential risks associated with genetic engineering. For example, if a genetically modified organism escapes into the environment, it could potentially harm native species. Additionally, there is a risk that genetically modified foods could be harmful to human health. However, it is important to note that these risks are theoretical, and there have been no confirmed cases of harm caused by genetically modified organisms.What are the ethical concerns about genetic engineering?
Some people believe that genetic engineering is unethical because it interferes with nature. Others worry that genetically modified organisms could pose a risk to human health or the environment. Additionally, there is concern that genetic engineering could be used to create “designer babies” with specific traits.What is the future of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering is a rapidly developing field, and it is likely that we will see even more applications of this technology in the future. Genetic engineering has the potential to revolutionize many aspects of our lives, from agriculture to medicine. However, it is important to proceed with caution and to carefully consider the potential risks of this technology.
- Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology.
- Genetic engineering can be used to improve crop yields, develop new medicines, and create biofuels.
- There are a number of ethical concerns associated with genetic engineering, including the potential for creating “designer babies” and the possibility of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment.
- The impact of genetic engineering on human life is still being debated, but it has the potential to revolutionize many aspects of our lives, from agriculture to medicine.
Here are some MCQs on genetic engineering:
Which of the following is not a goal of genetic engineering?
(A) To improve crop yields
(B) To develop new medicines
(C) To create biofuels
(D) To create “designer babies”Which of the following is an ethical concern associated with genetic engineering?
(A) The potential for creating “designer babies”
(B) The possibility of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) Neither (A) nor (B)Which of the following is a potential benefit of genetic engineering?
(A) Improved crop yields
(B) Development of new medicines
(C) Creation of biofuels
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a potential risk of genetic engineering?
(A) The potential for creating “designer babies”
(B) The possibility of releasing genetically modified organisms into the environment
(C) Both (A) and (B)
(D) Neither (A) nor (B)What is the impact of genetic engineering on human life?
(A) It is still being debated, but it has the potential to revolutionize many aspects of our lives, from agriculture to medicine.
(B) It is a positive development that will improve the Quality Of Life for all.
(C) It is a negative development that will have a negative impact on the environment.
(D) It is a neutral development that will have no impact on human life.