Conscience as a source of ethics
Conscience is an Aptitude, faculty, intuition or judgment that assists in distinguishing right from wrong. Moral judgment may derive from values or norms (principles and rules). In psychological terms conscience is often described as leading to feelings of remorse when a human commits actions that go against his/her moral values and to feelings of rectitude or Integrity when actions conform to such norms. The extent to which conscience informs moral judgment before an action and whether such moral judgments are or should be based in reason has occasioned debate through much of the history of Western philosophy. Religious views of conscience usually see it as linked to a morality inherent in all humans, to a beneficent universe and/or to divinity. The diverse ritualistic, mythical, doctrinal, legal, institutional and material features of religion may not necessarily cohere with experiential, emotive, spiritual or contemplative considerations about the origin and operation of conscience. Common secular or scientific views regard the capacity for conscience as probably genetically determined, with its subject probably learned or imprinted (like language) as part of a culture. Commonly used metaphors for conscience include the “voice within”, the “inner Light“,or even Socrates’ reliance on what the Greeks called his “daimōnic sign”, an averting inner voice heard only when he was about to make a mistake. Conscience, as is detailed in sections below, is a concept in national and international law, is increasingly conceived of as applying to the world as a whole, has motivated numerous notable acts for the public good and been the subject of many prominent examples of literature, music and film.
Benedict de Spinoza in his Ethics, , argued that most people, even those that consider themselves to exercise free will, make moral decisions on the basis of imperfect sensory information, inadequate understanding of their mind and will, as well as emotions which are both outcomes of their contingent physical existence and forms of thought defective from being chiefly impelled by self-preservation. The solution, according to Spinoza, was to gradually increase the capacity of our reason to change the forms of thought produced by emotions and to fall in love with viewing problems requiring moral decision from the perspective of eternity. Thus, living a life of peaceful conscience means to Spinoza that reason is used to generate adequate ideas where the mind increasingly sees the world and its conflicts, our desires and passions sub specie aeternitatis, that is without reference to time. Hegel’s obscure and mystical Philosophy of Mind held that the absolute right of freedom of conscience facilitates human understanding of an all-embracing unity, an absolute which was rational, real and true.
Nevertheless, Hegel thought that a functioning State would always be tempted not to recognize conscience in its form of subjective knowledge, just as similar non-objective opinions are generally rejected in science. A similar idealist notion was expressed in the writings of Joseph Butler who argued that conscience is God-given, should always be obeyed, is intuitive, and should be considered the “constitutional monarch” and the “universal moral faculty”: “conscience does not only offer itself to show us the way we should walk in, but it likewise carries its own authority with it.” Butler advanced ethical speculation by referring to a duality of regulative principles in human nature: first,”self-love” (seeking individual happiness) and second, “benevolence” (compassion and seeking good for another) in conscience (also linked to the agape of situational ethics). Conscience tended to be more authoritative in questions of moral judgment, thought Butler, because it was more likely to be clear and certain (whereas calculations of self-interest tended to probable and changing conclusions).John Selden in his Table Talk expressed the view that an awake but excessively scrupulous or ill-trained conscience could hinder resolve and practical action; it being “like a horse that is not well wayed, he starts at every bird that flies out of the hedge”.
Immanuel Kant, a central figure of the Age of Enlightenment, likewise claimed that two things filled his mind with ever new and increasing admiration and awe, the oftener and more steadily they were reflected on: “the starry heavens above me and the moral law within me … the latter begins from my invisible self, my Personality, and exhibits me in a world which has true infinity but which I recognise myself as existing in a universal and necessary (and not only, as in the first case, contingent) connection.” The ‘universal connection’ referred to here is Kant’s categorical imperative: “act only according to that maxim by which you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.” Kant considered critical conscience to be an internal court in which our thoughts accuse or excuse one another; he acknowledged that morally mature people do often describe contentment or peace in the soul after following conscience to perform a duty, but argued that for such acts to produce virtue their primary motivation should simply be duty, not expectation of any such bliss. Rousseau expressed a similar view that conscience somehow connected man to a greater metaphysical unity. John Plamenatz in his critical examination of Rousseau’s work considered that conscience was there defined as the feeling that urges us, in spite of contrary passions, towards two harmonies: the one within our minds and between our passions, and the other within Society and between its members; “the weakest can appeal to it in the strongest, and the appeal, though often unsuccessful, is always disturbing. However, corrupted by power or wealth we may be, either as possessors of them or as victims, there is something in us serving to remind us that this Corruption is against nature.
Conscientious acts and the law
English humanist lawyers in the 16th and 17th centuries interpreted conscience as a collection of universal principles given to man by god at creation to be applied by reason; this gradually reforming the medieval Roman law-based system with forms of action, written pleadings, use of juries and patterns of litigation such as Demurrer and Assumpsit that displayed an increased concern for Elements of right and wrong on the actual facts. A conscience vote in a parliament allows legislators to vote without restrictions from any political party to which they may belong. In his trial in Jerusalem Nazi war criminal Adolf Eichmann claimed he was simply following legal orders under paragraph 48 of the German Military Code which provided: “punishability of an action or omission is not excused on the ground that the person considered his behaviour required by his conscience or the prescripts of his religion”. The United Nations Universal Declaration on Human Rights (UDHR) which is part of international customary law specifically refers to conscience in Articles 1 and 18. Likewise, the United Nations International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR) mentions conscience in ARTICLE 18.1.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood — United Nations, Universal Declaration on Human Rights Article 1
Everyone has the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice, worship and observance — United Nations, Universal Declaration on Human Rights Article 18.
Everyone shall have the right to freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching — United Nations, International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights Article 18.1
Notable examples of modern acts based on conscience
In a notable contemporary act of conscience, Christian bushwalker Brenda Hean protested against the flooding of Lake Pedder despite threats and that ultimately lead to her death. Another was the campaign by Ken Saro-Wiwa against oil extraction by multinational corporations in Nigeria that led to his execution. So too was the act by the Tank Man, or the Unknown Rebel photographed holding his shopping bag in the path of tanks during the protests at Beijing’s Tiananmen Square on 5 June 1989. The actions of United Nations Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld to try and achieve peace in the Congo despite the (eventuating) threat to his life, were strongly motivated by conscience as is reflected in his diary, Vägmärken (Markings). Another example involved the actions of Warrant Officer Hugh Thompson, Jr to try and prevent the My Lai Massacre in the Vietnam War. Evan Pederick voluntarily confessed and was convicted of the Sydney Hilton bombing stating that his conscience could not tolerate the guilt and that “I guess I was quite unique in the prison system in that I had to keep proving my guilt, whereas everyone else said they were innocent.” Vasili Arkhipov was a Russian naval officer on out-of-radio-contact Soviet submarine B-59 being depth-charged by US warships during the Cuban Missile Crisis whose dissent when two other officers decided to launch a nuclear torpedo (unanimous agreement to launch was required) may have averted a nuclear war. In 1963 Buddhist monk Thich Quang Duc performed a famous act of self-immolation to protest against alleged persecution of his faith by the Vietnamese Ngo Dinh Diem regime.
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Conscience is a moral sense or feeling of right and wrong. It is often described as a voice inside that tells us what we should do, even when we don’t want to do it. Conscience can be a powerful force in our lives, guiding us to make good choices and avoid bad ones.
The nature of conscience
Conscience is a complex phenomenon that has been the subject of much philosophical and theological debate. There is no single agreed-upon definition of conscience, but it is generally understood to be a sense of right and wrong that is internal to the individual. Conscience is often described as a voice inside that tells us what we should do, even when we don’t want to do it.
The role of conscience in moral decision-making
Conscience plays a central role in moral decision-making. When we are faced with a difficult choice, we often turn to our conscience for guidance. Conscience can help us to weigh the different Options and choose the one that is most in line with our values.
The development of conscience
Conscience develops over time, as we learn about right and wrong from our parents, teachers, and other role models. It is also shaped by our own experiences and beliefs. As we mature, our conscience becomes more refined and we are better able to make Sound moral judgments.
Conscience and religious belief
For many people, conscience is rooted in religious belief. They believe that their conscience is a gift from God, and that it is their responsibility to follow its guidance. Religious beliefs can provide a strong foundation for moral decision-making, and can help people to resist temptation and make good choices.
Conscience and secular belief
Not everyone believes in God or a higher power. For these people, conscience may be based on secular beliefs, such as the importance of human rights or the need for social Justice. Secular beliefs can also provide a strong foundation for moral decision-making, and can help people to make good choices.
Conscience and the law
The law is often based on moral principles, and conscience can play a role in legal decision-making. For example, judges may consider the conscience of the accused when making sentencing decisions. Conscience can also be a factor in jury deliberations.
Conscience and social norms
Conscience is also shaped by social norms. We learn what is considered right and wrong from the people around us, and we tend to conform to social norms in order to avoid disapproval. Social norms can be a powerful force in our lives, and they can influence our conscience.
Conscience and personal integrity
Conscience is closely linked to personal integrity. Integrity is the quality of being honest and having strong moral principles. People with integrity are guided by their conscience, and they are willing to stand up for what they believe in, even when it is difficult.
Conscience and moral courage
Conscience can also give us the courage to do what is right, even when it is unpopular or dangerous. Moral courage is the strength to do what is right, even when it is difficult or risky. Conscience can give us the strength to stand up for what we believe in, even when we are facing opposition.
Conscience and the search for meaning in life
Conscience can also play a role in the search for meaning in life. When we make choices that are in line with our conscience, we can feel a sense of purpose and satisfaction. Conscience can help us to find meaning in our lives and to live a life that is true to our values.
Conscience and the challenge of evil
Conscience can also be a powerful force in the face of evil. When we see injustice or suffering, our conscience can motivate us to take action. Conscience can help us to stand up for what is right, even in the face of evil.
Conscience and the hope of redemption
Conscience can also give us hope for redemption. Even when we make mistakes, our conscience can help us to learn from our errors and to make better choices in the future. Conscience can give us the hope that we can change our lives and become better people.
In conclusion, conscience is a complex and powerful force in our lives. It can guide us to make good choices, resist temptation, and live a life that is true to our values. Conscience is a gift that we should cherish and nurture.
What is ethics?
Ethics is the study of morality and the principles of right and wrong. It is a branch of philosophy that deals with the moral principles that guide human behavior.
What are the different types of ethics?
There are many different types of ethics, but some of the most common include:
- Deontological ethics: This type of ethics is based on the idea that certain actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of the consequences.
- Consequentialist ethics: This type of ethics is based on the idea that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its consequences.
- Virtue ethics: This type of ethics is based on the idea that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by the character of the person who performs it.
What are some ethical dilemmas?
An ethical dilemma is a situation in which there is no clear right or wrong answer. Some common ethical dilemmas include:
- Should I tell the truth, even if it hurts someone’s feelings?
- Should I steal food to feed my family?
- Should I report a crime, even if it means getting someone in trouble?
What are some ethical principles?
Some common ethical principles include:
- Autonomy: The principle that people have the right to make their own decisions.
- Beneficence: The principle that we should do good and avoid doing harm.
- Non-maleficence: The principle that we should not harm others.
- Justice: The principle that we should treat people fairly.
- Veracity: The principle that we should tell the truth.
What is the role of conscience in ethics?
Conscience is the inner voice that tells us what is right and wrong. It is often based on our religious beliefs, our moral values, and our sense of what is fair. Conscience can be a powerful guide in making ethical decisions.
What are some examples of ethical behavior?
Some examples of ethical behavior include:
- Telling the truth
- Keeping promises
- Being honest
- Being fair
- Helping others
- Respecting others
What are some examples of unethical behavior?
Some examples of unethical behavior include:
- Lying
- Cheating
- Stealing
- Hurting others
- Taking advantage of others
- Being disrespectful
What are the consequences of unethical behavior?
Unethical behavior can have both personal and social consequences. Some of the personal consequences of unethical behavior include:
- Guilt
- Shame
- Loss of trust
- Loss of respect
- Loss of relationships
Some of the social consequences of unethical behavior include:
- Damage to reputation
- Loss of business
- Legal problems
- Social unrest
What can we do to promote ethical behavior?
There are many things we can do to promote ethical behavior, including:
- Set a good example
- Talk about ethics
- Teach ethics
- Model ethical behavior
- Reward ethical behavior
- Punish unethical behavior
What are some Resources for Learning more about ethics?
There are many resources available for learning more about ethics, including:
- Books
- Articles
- Websites
- Videos
- Courses
- Workshops
Sure, here are some multiple choice questions about ethical guidance without mentioning the topic of conscience:
Which of the following is not a source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most important source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the least important source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most objective source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most subjective source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most flexible source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most rigid source of ethical guidance?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most likely to change over time?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the least likely to change over time?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most likely to vary from person to person?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the least likely to vary from person to person?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most likely to be based on personal beliefs?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the least likely to be based on personal beliefs?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the most likely to be based on external authority?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) ConscienceWhich of the following is the least likely to be based on external authority?
(A) Religion
(B) Law
(C) Culture
(D) Conscience