Comparative Study of Indian and Western Philosophy- CGPCS Mains

Comparative Study Of Indian And Western Philosophy

Philosophy is the root of all knowledge. It is considered as mother of all sciences. Philosophy has interpreted man and his various activities in a comprehensive manner. It helps to coordinate the various activities of the individuals and the Society.
It helps us to understand the significance of all human experience.
“It explores the basic source and aims of life. It asks and tries to answer the deepest questions to life. It clarifies life and the basic values of life. This clarity is very essential because it provides us with the wisdom to face the challenges of life.
Wisdom is the supreme instrument in the hands of man in the struggle for his successful existence.

A GENERAL OUTLINE OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

In the early phases of human life on this planet when man was struck with wonder or the natural phenomena or when he found complex ad conflicting phenomena in life and was filled with discontentment at the existing order of things, it was the beginning of philosophy.

The Vedas

The origin of Indian philosophy may be easily traced in the Vedas. The Vedas are the earliest available records of Indian Literature.
The Upanishads are the foundation of Indian philosophy, which teach spiritual monism and mysticism.
The systems of Indian philosophy are systematic speculations on the nature of the Realty in harmony with the teachings of Upanishads, which contain various aspects of the truth. They aim at the knowledge of the Reality with a view to transforming and spiritualizing human life.
Philosophical knowledge does not aim at merely satisfying our theoretical and speculative interest, but also at realizing the highest truth in life

Dars’ana or vision of truth

Indian philosophy is intensely spiritual and emphasizes the need of practical realization of truth. As philosophy aims at knowledge of truth, it is termed in Indian literature, ‘the vision of truth’ (dars’ana).
The word ‘dars’ana’ means ‘vision’ and also the ‘instrument of vision’. It stands for the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of Truth , and also includes the means which lead to this realization.
‘See the Self’ is the keynote of all schools of Indian Philosophy. And this is the reason why most of the schools of Indian Philosophy are intimately associated with religious sects.

The schools of Indian philosophy

The following are the major philosophical schools or systems (dars’anas).

The Nyaya system of Aksapada Gautama
The Vaise esika system of Maharshi kanada
The Samkhya system of Kapila muni
The Yoga/”>Yoga system of Ptanjali
The Mimamsa system of Jaimini
The Vedanta system of Badarayana Vyas
TheBauddha system of Guatama Buddha
The Jaina system of Mahavira
The Carvaka system of Carvaka

Classfication of the Indian Philosophical Schools:

Orthodox and Heterodox

The schools or systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad classes, namely, orthodox (astika, Vedic) and heterodox (nastika, Non-Vedic).
To the first group belong the six chief philosophical systems (popularly known as sad-darsana), namely, Mimamsa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisesika.
These are regarded as orthodox (astika), not because they believe in God, but because they accept the authority of the Vedas.
The Mimamsa and the Sankhya do not believe in God as the creator of the world, yet they are called orthodox (astika), because they believe in the authoritativeness of the Vedas.
Under the other class of Heterodox systems, the chief three are the schools of the Materialists like the Carvakas, the Bauddhas and the Jains. They are called heterodox because they do not believe in the authority of the Vedas.

Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianism

The nine major systems of Indian Philosophy may be classified on the basis of sources of knowledge ie. epistemology into three major groups- Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianisn.

Empiricism:

Those who hold that perception is the only source of knowledge are forced to deny the existence of God , soul, rebirth, hell and heaven.
This view is called Empiricism- Sense experience is the only source of knowledge. Charvaka holds this view.

Rationalism:

Those who hold that we are entitled to believe in what is not directly perceived but which can be inferred from what is perceived.
This view is called Rationalism.eg., from the perception of smoke we are entitled to infere the existence of fire though we do not see fire, on the ground that wherever there is smoke there is fire.
The Nyaya-Vaisheshika, The Samkhya-yoga andBuddhism are rationalist schools
They accept perception and inference as the valid pramanas and regard inference as primary and sense perception as subordinate

Authoritarianism

Perception and Inference based upon perception may be adequate to give us knowledge about the empirical world , but what about transcendent realities like souls, God, past birth, karma hell and heaven.
These objects are not knowable by these two pramanas. But they can be known through supra-sensuous experience to the mystics, prophets, saints, sees directly and to us through scriptures which are the records of such experience or revelations This is called Authoritarianism.
Of course, they accept other pramanas also. The remaining three schools of purva Mimamsa, Vedanta and Jainism belong to this category.

The Common Ideas in the System of Indian Philosophy

The Reality of the world: All schools of Indian philosophy recognize the reality of the world. Even the Advaita Vedanta of Samkara regards the world as a mere appearance from the standpoint of the absolute. But it recognizes the empirical reality of the world-appearance.
The reality of the self: The reality of the permanent self is generally admitted. Among the Heterodox Schools the Carvaka and Buddhist deny the reality of the permanent self.
The law of Karma : All schools of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka believe in the law of Karma. As we sow, so we reap. There is no escape from the consequences of actions . Their fruits must be reaped in this life or in future life
Transmigration: The idea of transmigration is common to all systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school.
Initial Pessimism and Ultimate Optimism: Indian philosophy is branded as pessimistic. Life is full of sufferings. But all kinds of pain can be destroyed in the state of liberation. So, Indian philosophy is characterised by initial pessimism and ultimate optimism.
Bondage: Another common view held by all Indian thinkers except Carvaka school, is that ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage and sufferings, and liberation from these cannot be achieved without knowledge of reality.
Liberation: The idea of liberation is common to all the systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school.
The means to liberation: The different systems of Indian philosophy lay down the means to the attaintment of liberation.
Pramanas: Indian philosophy is not dogmatic and uncritical. Every system of philosophy is based on epistemology or theory of knowledge.

A GENERAL IDEA OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

Wonder is said to be the origin of philosophy. In the early human life on this planet, when man was struck with wonder at the natural phenomena or when he found complex and conflicting phenomena in life and was filled with discontentment at the existing order of things, it was the beginning of philosophy.
While the philosophy of Vedas began in wonder, the philosophy of Gautam Buddha began in discontentment with the miserable world.
In the West, the early beginning of philosophy was in wonder, while the modern Western philosophy had its origin in doubt.
These are some of the many problems taken at random, which we find agitating the human mind in every land, from the very dawn of civilization.
Western philosophy has removed more or less true to the etymological meaning of ‘philosophy’ in being essentially an intellectual quest for truth

The Development of Western Philosophy:

In the history of Western philosophy we find that as human knowledge about each of the different problems mentioned above began to grow, it became impossible for the same man to study everything about every problem.
Division of labour or specialization became necessary and a group of man devoted themselves to a particular problem or a few connected problems. There came into existence in this way the different special sciences.
Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Anatomy, Geology and similar sciences took up each a part or aspect of the world of nature.
Physiology, Anatomy and the other medical sciences devoted themselves to the different problems of the human body. Psychology began to study the problems of the human mind.
The detailed study of many of particular problems with which philosophical speculation originally started became thus the subject matter of the special sciences.
Philosophy then began to depend on the reports of the investigation made by the different sciences, tried to understand their meanings and implications critically , and utilized these results for understanding the general nature of the universe- man, nature and God.

Divisions of Western Philosophy

Historians of philosophy have divided Western Philosophy according to their convenience. We shall divide the Western Philosophy into Greek, Medieval, Modern, PostKantian, Metaphysicians and the 20th Century philosophy.

Greek Philosophy: Ancient Philosophy

It covers a period between 600-400 A.D. This period has three sections.

Section I. Pre-Socratic Philosophy
Section II. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
Section III. Greco-Roman Philosophy
Medieval Philosophy 400-1500 A.D
Modern Philosophy (Bacon to Kant) Post-Kantian Philosophy.

20th Century Philosophy

Methods of Philosophy

A method for any science is a necessity. Method in philosophy is a systematic and consistent way of attaining philosophical knowledge. What our method is going to be largely determined by our Attitude to philosophy.
Those who look upon philosophy as a universal science may think that a method of philosophy like a method of science is empirical.
Others looking upon philosophy as an intellectual pursuit may treat a method of reason as the method of philosophy.

The different methods of philosophy are as follows:

Dogmatism

This method of thinking consists in assuming certain “fundamental principles as self-evident and axiomatic, without explanation or proof, and deducing conclusions from these unproved premises”.
It also carries on its investigations without a previous criticism of uses. In other words without criticizing the quality of knowledge and without determining how we know things, it at once hastens to interpret the objects of the world.
Hence in this method of thinking the mind is too busy with its objects to attend to itself.
Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz may be mentioned as belonging to this line of thinking.

Empiricism

According to Empiricism, all knowledge , whether scientific or philosophical, is entirely built up of sensations and materials derived from sensations.
It holds that the mind of every man at the time of birth is like a blank sheet of white paper (a tabula rasa) on which the impressions coming from the outside are imprinted in the form of experience.
Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Hume,Mill and Bain may be mentioned as the advocates of this school of thought.

Scepticism

It results from carrying empiricism to its most extreme and consistent form.
Because, if we once admit that we can have no genuine knowledge beyond what can be compounded out of the materials of sensations and feelings, it follows that we cannot have not only any understanding realities outside of and apart from our own sensations and feelings, but also any certain knowledge that such things exist as all.
Hence, our idea of substances, mind, matter and God cannot be known for certain to correspond to realities, existing independently of our ideas.
Not only can we know nothing about the real nature of such meta-physical or transcendental realities, but also we cannot even know for certain that they have any existence.
Hume, Mill, Bain, and Spencer are the advocates of this doctrine.
In its extreme form, skepticism denies the certainty of all knowledge.

Criticism

Criticism is the method which bases all philosophical speculation upon a critical inquiry into the nature, origin and limits of knowledge.
According to this doctrine, the true philosophical method must be critical.
Before we enter into philosophy, we must hold a thorough inquiry into the antecedent conditions of knowledge and the precise filed and range of its operations.
By thus ascertaining the scope of knowledge, criticism helps us in determining the range of philosophical investigations. Kant is a great advocate of critical method.

Rationalism

It is a method which consist in showing that sensations and feelings can only give the materials of knowledge and that such materials do not constitute knowledge unless they are interpreted by reason.
Hence, according to this method of thinking, knowledge is a product, not of experience alone, but of reason interpreting experience.
Thus, this form of thinking gives a prominent place to reason, and a subordinate one to sensations and feelings in the structure of knowledge.
The Criticism of Kant, then, is a form of Rationalism. Likewise some of the dogmatic systems may be regarded as forms of Rationalism.

Dialectical Method

According to Hegel, the proper method for philosophy is dialectic. This is a natural method of philosophical thinking.
It is a commonplace experience that when we think over a problem we arrive at certain positive facts. This is thesis.
Now, after some time we come to know some facts which are contradictory to the thesis; this is antithesis.
Thesis and antithesis cannot live together for long hence they are synthesized into a synthesis. This synthesis arrived through antithesis is more comprehensive than the original thesis.
Thus, knowledge grows in a dialectical process through thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis.

Modern Methods

The Pragmatists adopt the pragmatic method. The New Realists adopt the method of intellectual analysis.
Bergson adopts the method of intuition in regard to life, and of intellect in regard to matter.
The Logical Positivists adopt the method of linguistic analysis and empirical verification.
The naturalists adopt the naturalistic methods of observation and experiment. Croce and Gentile adopt the historical method

Indian philosophy is a vast and complex tradition that has been developing for over 3,000 years. It is a rich and diverse field of thought that encompasses a wide range of schools and systems, from the Vedanta and Yoga traditions to the Nyaya and Mimamsa schools. Indian philosophy is concerned with a wide range of topics, including the nature of reality, the human condition, and the path to liberation.

Western philosophy is also a vast and complex tradition that has been developing for over 2,500 years. It is a rich and diverse field of thought that encompasses a wide range of schools and systems, from the Socratic tradition to the Aristotelian tradition to the Cartesian tradition. Western philosophy is concerned with a wide range of topics, including the nature of reality, the human condition, and the nature of knowledge.

There are many similarities between Indian and Western philosophy. Both traditions emphasize the importance of reason, logic, and critical thinking. Both traditions also seek to understand the nature of reality and the human condition. And both traditions offer insights that can help us live better lives.

However, there are also some important differences between Indian and Western philosophy. Indian philosophy is more holistic and integrative, while Western philosophy is more analytical and individualistic. Indian philosophy is more concerned with the spiritual and metaphysical, while Western philosophy is more concerned with the material and physical. Indian philosophy is more focused on the individual’s inner journey, while Western philosophy is more focused on the individual’s relationship to society. Indian philosophy is more accepting of ambiguity and paradox, while Western philosophy is more focused on finding logical consistency. Indian philosophy is more open to the possibility of multiple truths, while Western philosophy is more focused on finding a single, objective truth.

Despite these differences, Indian and Western philosophy can be mutually enriching. Each tradition can learn from the other and help to fill in the gaps in its own understanding. By studying both Indian and Western philosophy, we can gain a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the human condition and the world we live in.

Here are some examples of how Indian and Western philosophy can be mutually enriching:

Indian philosophy can help Western philosophy to become more holistic and integrative. Indian philosophy emphasizes the interconnectedness of all things and the importance of seeing the world from a larger perspective. This can help Western philosophy to overcome its tendency to be fragmented and reductionistic.
Western philosophy can help Indian philosophy to become more analytical and individualistic. Indian philosophy can sometimes be too focused on the spiritual and metaphysical, and it can neglect the material and physical world. Western philosophy can help Indian philosophy to become more grounded in reality and to pay more attention to the individual.
Indian philosophy can help Western philosophy to become more concerned with the spiritual and metaphysical. Western philosophy has traditionally been more concerned with the material and physical world. Indian philosophy can help Western philosophy to rediscover the importance of the spiritual and metaphysical dimensions of life.
Western philosophy can help Indian philosophy to become more concerned with the individual. Indian philosophy has traditionally been more concerned with the collective and the social. Western philosophy can help Indian philosophy to become more aware of the individual and the individual’s unique needs and experiences.
Indian philosophy can help Western philosophy to become more accepting of ambiguity and paradox. Western philosophy has traditionally been more focused on finding logical consistency. Indian philosophy can help Western philosophy to become more comfortable with ambiguity and paradox.
Western philosophy can help Indian philosophy to become more open to the possibility of multiple truths. Indian philosophy has traditionally been more focused on finding a single, objective truth. Western philosophy can help Indian philosophy to become more open to the possibility of multiple truths.

By studying both Indian and Western philosophy, we can gain a deeper and more comprehensive understanding of the human condition and the world we live in.

1. What is the difference between Indian and Western philosophy?

Indian philosophy is a diverse tradition that has developed over thousands of years. It is characterized by its focus on the nature of reality, the human condition, and the path to liberation. Western philosophy, on the other hand, is a more recent tradition that has its roots in ancient Greece. It is characterized by its focus on logic, reason, and the nature of knowledge.

2. What are some of the key concepts in Indian philosophy?

Some of the key concepts in Indian philosophy include Brahman, Atman, Maya, Karma, and Moksha. Brahman is the ultimate reality, the ground of all being. Atman is the individual soul, which is ultimately identical to Brahman. Maya is the illusion of separateness, which is the cause of suffering. Karma is the law of cause and effect, which determines the course of one’s life. Moksha is liberation from the cycle of rebirth and suffering.

3. What are some of the key concepts in Western philosophy?

Some of the key concepts in Western philosophy include God, the soul, free will, reason, and Justice. God is the supreme being, the creator and sustainer of the universe. The soul is the immaterial part of a person that survives death. Free will is the ability to choose between different courses of action. Reason is the ability to think logically and rationally. Justice is the fair and impartial treatment of all people.

4. What are some of the similarities between Indian and Western philosophy?

Both Indian and Western philosophy are concerned with the fundamental questions of human existence, such as the nature of reality, the meaning of life, and the nature of the good. Both traditions also have a long history of debate and discussion, and both have produced a rich body of literature.

5. What are some of the differences between Indian and Western philosophy?

One of the most significant differences between Indian and Western philosophy is their approach to the problem of suffering. Indian philosophy tends to view suffering as an inevitable part of life, while Western philosophy tends to view it as a problem that can be solved through human effort. Another difference is their approach to the nature of reality. Indian philosophy tends to view reality as ultimately one and undivided, while Western philosophy tends to view reality as made up of many different things.

6. What are some of the contributions of Indian philosophy to the world?

Indian philosophy has made many contributions to the world, including the development of yoga, meditation, and Ayurveda. It has also influenced many other traditions, such as Buddhism-2/”>Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Indian philosophy has also had a significant impact on Western thought, particularly in the areas of religion, psychology, and spirituality.

7. What are some of the contributions of Western philosophy to the world?

Western philosophy has made many contributions to the world, including the development of logic, mathematics, and science. It has also influenced many other traditions, such as Christianity, Islam, and Judaism. Western philosophy has also had a significant impact on Indian thought, particularly in the areas of Education, law, and government.

8. What are some of the challenges facing Indian and Western philosophy today?

One of the biggest challenges facing Indian and Western philosophy today is the rise of Secularism-2/”>Secularism. Secularism is the belief that religion should be kept separate from the state and public life. This has led to a decline in the influence of both traditions in many parts of the world. Another challenge is the rise of materialism. Materialism is the belief that the only thing that exists is matter. This has led to a decline in interest in spiritual and metaphysical questions.

9. What is the future of Indian and Western philosophy?

Despite the challenges facing them, both Indian and Western philosophy have a bright future. Both traditions are rich and complex, and they have much to offer the world. They are also both dynamic and evolving, and they will continue to adapt and respond to the needs of the people.

Question 1

Which of the following is not a characteristic of Indian philosophy?

(A) It is based on the Vedas.
(B) It is non-dualistic.
(C) It is concerned with the nature of reality.
(D) It is concerned with the nature of the self.

Answer

(B)

Explanation

Indian philosophy is a diverse tradition that encompasses a wide range of schools of thought. However, one of the most common characteristics of Indian philosophy is its non-dualistic nature. This means that Indian philosophers typically believe that there is no fundamental difference between the self and the world, or between the individual and the universe.

Question 2

Which of the following is not a characteristic of Western philosophy?

(A) It is based on reason.
(B) It is dualistic.
(C) It is concerned with the nature of reality.
(D) It is concerned with the nature of the self.

Answer

(A)

Explanation

Western philosophy is a diverse tradition that encompasses a wide range of schools of thought. However, one of the most common characteristics of Western philosophy is its emphasis on reason. Western philosophers typically believe that reason is the best way to understand the world and the self.

Question 3

Which of the following is a similarity between Indian and Western philosophy?

(A) Both traditions are concerned with the nature of reality.
(B) Both traditions are concerned with the nature of the self.
(C) Both traditions are based on the Vedas.
(D) Both traditions are based on reason.

Answer

(A)

Explanation

Both Indian and Western philosophy are concerned with the nature of reality. Indian philosophers typically believe that reality is Brahman, which is the ultimate reality or the ground of all being. Western philosophers have a variety of views on the nature of reality, but many of them believe that reality is ultimately material or physical.

Question 4

Which of the following is a difference between Indian and Western philosophy?

(A) Indian philosophy is non-dualistic, while Western philosophy is dualistic.
(B) Indian philosophy is based on the Vedas, while Western philosophy is not.
(C) Indian philosophy is concerned with the nature of the self, while Western philosophy is not.
(D) Indian philosophy is based on reason, while Western philosophy is not.

Answer

(A)

Explanation

As mentioned above, one of the most common characteristics of Indian philosophy is its non-dualistic nature. This means that Indian philosophers typically believe that there is no fundamental difference between the self and the world, or between the individual and the universe. In contrast, Western philosophers typically believe that there is a fundamental difference between the self and the world, or between the individual and the universe.

Question 5

Which of the following is a contribution of Indian philosophy to the world?

(A) The concept of non-duality.
(B) The concept of karma.
(C) The concept of reincarnation.
(D) All of the above.

Answer

(D)

Explanation

Indian philosophy has made a number of contributions to the world, including the concepts of non-duality, karma, and reincarnation. These concepts have been influential in a variety of cultures and religions, and they continue to be studied and debated today.