Comparative Study Of Indian And Western Philosophy (4)

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Comparative Study Of Indian And Western Philosophy

Philosophy is the root of all knowledge. It is considered as mother of all sciences. Philosophy has interpreted man and his various activities in a comprehensive manner. It helps to coordinate the various activities of the individuals and the Society.
It helps us to understand the significance of all human experience.
“It explores the basic source and aims of life. It asks and tries to answer the deepest questions to life. It clarifies life and the basic values of life. This clarity is very essential because it provides us with the wisdom to face the challenges of life.
Wisdom is the supreme instrument in the hands of man in the struggle for his successful existence.

A GENERAL OUTLINE OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

In the early phases of human life on this planet when man was struck with wonder or the natural phenomena or when he found complex ad conflicting phenomena in life and was filled with discontentment at the existing order of things, it was the beginning of philosophy.

The Vedas

The origin of Indian philosophy may be easily traced in the Vedas. The Vedas are the earliest available records of Indian Literature.
The Upanishads are the foundation of Indian philosophy, which teach spiritual monism and mysticism.
The systems of Indian philosophy are systematic speculations on the nature of the Realty in harmony with the teachings of Upanishads, which contain various aspects of the truth. They aim at the knowledge of the Reality with a view to transforming and spiritualizing human life.
Philosophical knowledge does not aim at merely satisfying our theoretical and speculative interest, but also at realizing the highest truth in life

Dars’ana or vision of truth

Indian philosophy is intensely spiritual and emphasizes the need of practical realization of truth. As philosophy aims at knowledge of truth, it is termed in Indian literature, ‘the vision of truth’ (dars’ana).
The word ‘dars’ana’ means ‘vision’ and also the ‘instrument of vision’. It stands for the direct, immediate and intuitive vision of Reality, the actual perception of Truth , and also includes the means which lead to this realization.
‘See the Self’ is the keynote of all schools of Indian Philosophy. And this is the reason why most of the schools of Indian Philosophy are intimately associated with religious sects.

The schools of Indian philosophy

The following are the major philosophical schools or systems (dars’anas).

The Nyaya system of Aksapada Gautama
The Vaise esika system of Maharshi kanada
The Samkhya system of Kapila muni
The Yoga/”>Yoga system of Ptanjali
The Mimamsa system of Jaimini
The Vedanta system of Badarayana Vyas
TheBauddha system of Guatama Buddha
The Jaina system of Mahavira
The Carvaka system of Carvaka

Classfication of the Indian Philosophical Schools:

Orthodox and Heterodox

The schools or systems of Indian philosophy are divided into two broad classes, namely, orthodox (astika, Vedic) and heterodox (nastika, Non-Vedic).
To the first group belong the six chief philosophical systems (popularly known as sad-darsana), namely, Mimamsa, Vedanta, Sankhya, Yoga, Nyaya and Vaisesika.
These are regarded as orthodox (astika), not because they believe in God, but because they accept the authority of the Vedas.
The Mimamsa and the Sankhya do not believe in God as the creator of the world, yet they are called orthodox (astika), because they believe in the authoritativeness of the Vedas.
Under the other class of Heterodox systems, the chief three are the schools of the Materialists like the Carvakas, the Bauddhas and the Jains. They are called heterodox because they do not believe in the authority of the Vedas.

Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianism

The nine major systems of Indian Philosophy may be classified on the basis of sources of knowledge ie. epistemology into three major groups- Empiricism, Rationalism and Authoritarianisn.

Empiricism:

Those who hold that perception is the only source of knowledge are forced to deny the existence of God , soul, rebirth, hell and heaven.
This view is called Empiricism- Sense experience is the only source of knowledge. Charvaka holds this view.

Rationalism:

Those who hold that we are entitled to believe in what is not directly perceived but which can be inferred from what is perceived.
This view is called Rationalism.eg., from the perception of smoke we are entitled to infere the existence of fire though we do not see fire, on the ground that wherever there is smoke there is fire.
The Nyaya-Vaisheshika, The Samkhya-yoga andBuddhism are rationalist schools
They accept perception and inference as the valid pramanas and regard inference as primary and sense perception as subordinate

Authoritarianism

Perception and Inference based upon perception may be adequate to give us knowledge about the empirical world , but what about transcendent realities like souls, God, past birth, karma hell and heaven.
These objects are not knowable by these two pramanas. But they can be known through supra-sensuous experience to the mystics, prophets, saints, sees directly and to us through scriptures which are the records of such experience or revelations This is called Authoritarianism.
Of course, they accept other pramanas also. The remaining three schools of purva Mimamsa, Vedanta and Jainism belong to this category.

The Common Ideas in the System of Indian Philosophy

The Reality of the world: All schools of Indian philosophy recognize the reality of the world. Even the Advaita Vedanta of Samkara regards the world as a mere appearance from the standpoint of the absolute. But it recognizes the empirical reality of the world-appearance.
The reality of the self: The reality of the permanent self is generally admitted. Among the Heterodox Schools the Carvaka and Buddhist deny the reality of the permanent self.
The law of Karma : All schools of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka believe in the law of Karma. As we sow, so we reap. There is no escape from the consequences of actions . Their fruits must be reaped in this life or in future life
Transmigration: The idea of transmigration is common to all systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school.
Initial Pessimism and Ultimate Optimism: Indian philosophy is branded as pessimistic. Life is full of sufferings. But all kinds of pain can be destroyed in the state of liberation. So, Indian philosophy is characterised by initial pessimism and ultimate optimism.
Bondage: Another common view held by all Indian thinkers except Carvaka school, is that ignorance of reality is the cause of our bondage and sufferings, and liberation from these cannot be achieved without knowledge of reality.
Liberation: The idea of liberation is common to all the systems of Indian philosophy except the Carvaka school.
The means to liberation: The different systems of Indian philosophy lay down the means to the attaintment of liberation.
Pramanas: Indian philosophy is not dogmatic and uncritical. Every system of philosophy is based on epistemology or theory of knowledge.

A GENERAL IDEA OF WESTERN PHILOSOPHY

Wonder is said to be the origin of philosophy. In the early human life on this planet, when man was struck with wonder at the natural phenomena or when he found complex and conflicting phenomena in life and was filled with discontentment at the existing order of things, it was the beginning of philosophy.
While the philosophy of Vedas began in wonder, the philosophy of Gautam Buddha began in discontentment with the miserable world.
In the West, the early beginning of philosophy was in wonder, while the modern Western philosophy had its origin in doubt.
These are some of the many problems taken at random, which we find agitating the human mind in every land, from the very dawn of civilization.
Western philosophy has removed more or less true to the etymological meaning of ‘philosophy’ in being essentially an intellectual quest for truth

The Development of Western Philosophy:

In the history of Western philosophy we find that as human knowledge about each of the different problems mentioned above began to grow, it became impossible for the same man to study everything about every problem.
Division of labour or specialization became necessary and a group of man devoted themselves to a particular problem or a few connected problems. There came into existence in this way the different special sciences.
Physics, Chemistry, Botany, Anatomy, Geology and similar sciences took up each a part or aspect of the world of nature.
Physiology, Anatomy and the other medical sciences devoted themselves to the different problems of the human body. Psychology began to study the problems of the human mind.
The detailed study of many of particular problems with which philosophical speculation originally started became thus the subject matter of the special sciences.
Philosophy then began to depend on the reports of the investigation made by the different sciences, tried to understand their meanings and implications critically , and utilized these results for understanding the general nature of the universe- man, nature and God.

Divisions of Western Philosophy

Historians of philosophy have divided Western Philosophy according to their convenience. We shall divide the Western Philosophy into Greek, Medieval, Modern, PostKantian, Metaphysicians and the 20th Century philosophy.

I. Greek Philosophy: Ancient Philosophy

It covers a period between 600-400 A.D. This period has three sections.

Section I. Pre-Socratic Philosophy
Section II. Socrates, Plato and Aristotle.
Section III. Greco-Roman Philosophy

Medieval Philosophy 400-1500 A.D
Modern Philosophy (Bacon to Kant) Post-Kantian Philosophy.
20th Century Philosophy

Methods of Philosophy

A method for any science is a necessity. Method in philosophy is a systematic and consistent way of attaining philosophical knowledge. What our method is going to be largely determined by our Attitude to philosophy.
Those who look upon philosophy as a universal science may think that a method of philosophy like a method of science is empirical.
Others looking upon philosophy as an intellectual pursuit may treat a method of reason as the method of philosophy.

The different methods of philosophy are as follows:

Dogmatism

This method of thinking consists in assuming certain “fundamental principles as self-evident and axiomatic, without explanation or proof, and deducing conclusions from these unproved premises”.
It also carries on its investigations without a previous criticism of uses. In other words without criticizing the quality of knowledge and without determining how we know things, it at once hastens to interpret the objects of the world.
Hence in this method of thinking the mind is too busy with its objects to attend to itself.
Descartes, Spinoza and Leibnitz may be mentioned as belonging to this line of thinking.

Empiricism

According to Empiricism, all knowledge , whether scientific or philosophical, is entirely built up of sensations and materials derived from sensations.
It holds that the mind of every man at the time of birth is like a blank sheet of white paper (a tabula rasa) on which the impressions coming from the outside are imprinted in the form of experience.
Bacon, Hobbes, Locke, Hume,Mill and Bain may be mentioned as the advocates of this school of thought.

Scepticism

It results from carrying empiricism to its most extreme and consistent form.
Because, if we once admit that we can have no genuine knowledge beyond what can be compounded out of the materials of sensations and feelings, it follows that we cannot have not only any understanding realities outside of and apart from our own sensations and feelings, but also any certain knowledge that such things exist as all.
Hence, our idea of substances, mind, matter and God cannot be known for certain to correspond to realities, existing independently of our ideas.
Not only can we know nothing about the real nature of such meta-physical or transcendental realities, but also we cannot even know for certain that they have any existence.
Hume, Mill, Bain, and Spencer are the advocates of this doctrine.
In its extreme form, skepticism denies the certainty of all knowledge.

Criticism

Criticism is the method which bases all philosophical speculation upon a critical inquiry into the nature, origin and limits of knowledge.
According to this doctrine, the true philosophical method must be critical.
Before we enter into philosophy, we must hold a thorough inquiry into the antecedent conditions of knowledge and the precise filed and range of its operations.
By thus ascertaining the scope of knowledge, criticism helps us in determining the range of philosophical investigations. Kant is a great advocate of critical method.

Rationalism

It is a method which consist in showing that sensations and feelings can only give the materials of knowledge and that such materials do not constitute knowledge unless they are interpreted by reason.
Hence, according to this method of thinking, knowledge is a product, not of experience alone, but of reason interpreting experience.
Thus, this form of thinking gives a prominent place to reason, and a subordinate one to sensations and feelings in the structure of knowledge.
The Criticism of Kant, then, is a form of Rationalism. Likewise some of the dogmatic systems may be regarded as forms of Rationalism.

Dialectical Method

According to Hegel, the proper method for philosophy is dialectic. This is a natural method of philosophical thinking.
It is a commonplace experience that when we think over a problem we arrive at certain positive facts. This is thesis.
Now, after some time we come to know some facts which are contradictory to the thesis; this is antithesis.
Thesis and antithesis cannot live together for long hence they are synthesized into a synthesis. This synthesis arrived through antithesis is more comprehensive than the original thesis.
Thus, knowledge grows in a dialectical process through thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis.

Modern Methods

The Pragmatists adopt the pragmatic method. The New Realists adopt the method of intellectual analysis.
Bergson adopts the method of intuition in regard to life, and of intellect in regard to matter.
The Logical Positivists adopt the method of linguistic analysis and empirical verification.
The naturalists adopt the naturalistic methods of observation and experiment. Croce and Gentile adopt the historical method

Indian and Western philosophy have been developing independently for thousands of years, and as a result, they have developed very different ways of thinking about the world. However, there are also some important similarities between the two traditions.

One of the most fundamental differences between Indian and Western philosophy is their view of reality. Indian philosophy tends to view reality as one and eternal, while Western philosophy tends to view reality as many and changing. This difference is reflected in the different ways that Indian and Western philosophers have approached the question of the self. Indian philosophers have tended to view the self as individual and eternal, while Western philosophers have tended to view the self as universal and impermanent.

Another important difference between Indian and Western philosophy is their view of knowledge. Indian philosophy tends to view knowledge as intuitive and based on experience, while Western philosophy tends to view knowledge as rational and based on logic. This difference is reflected in the different ways that Indian and Western philosophers have approached the question of morality. Indian philosophers have tended to view morality as based on duty and social order, while Western philosophers have tended to view morality as based on individual conscience.

Finally, Indian and Western philosophy have different views of liberation. Indian philosophy tends to view liberation as a state of freedom from suffering, while Western philosophy tends to view liberation as a state of happiness. This difference is reflected in the different ways that Indian and Western philosophers have approached the question of the purpose of life. Indian philosophers have tended to view the purpose of life as achieving liberation from suffering, while Western philosophers have tended to view the purpose of life as achieving happiness.

Despite these differences, there are also some important similarities between Indian and Western philosophy. Both traditions have a long history of speculation about the nature of reality, the self, knowledge, morality, and liberation. Both traditions have also produced a rich body of literature on these topics. And both traditions have had a significant impact on the development of human thought.

A comparative study of Indian and Western philosophy can help us to understand the different ways in which people have thought about the fundamental questions of human existence. It can also help us to appreciate the richness and diversity of human thought.

One of the most important things that we can learn from a comparative study of Indian and Western philosophy is that there is no one right way to think about the world. There are many different ways of thinking about reality, the self, knowledge, morality, and liberation. Each tradition has its own strengths and weaknesses, and each tradition can offer us something valuable.

Another important thing that we can learn from a comparative study of Indian and Western philosophy is that there is no one right way to live our lives. There are many different ways to live a good life, and each person must find the way that is right for them. We can learn from the different traditions about the different ways that people have lived their lives, and we can use this knowledge to help us to live our own lives in a way that is meaningful and fulfilling.

A comparative study of Indian and Western philosophy can be a very rewarding experience. It can help us to understand ourselves and the world around us better. It can also help us to find our own path in life.

1. What is the difference between Indian and Western philosophy?

Indian philosophy is a diverse tradition that has been developing for over 2,500 years. It encompasses a wide range of schools of thought, including Hinduism-2/”>Hinduism, Buddhism-2/”>Buddhism, Jainism, and Sikhism. Western philosophy, on the other hand, is a more recent tradition that has its roots in ancient Greece. It is characterized by its emphasis on logic, reason, and the pursuit of knowledge.

One of the key differences between Indian and Western philosophy is their approach to the nature of reality. Indian philosophy tends to be more holistic and sees reality as a complex and interconnected whole. Western philosophy, on the other hand, is more analytical and tends to view reality as a collection of discrete objects.

Another key difference between Indian and Western philosophy is their approach to the nature of the self. Indian philosophy tends to view the self as an eternal and unchanging entity. Western philosophy, on the other hand, is more likely to view the self as a product of the mind and body.

2. What are the similarities between Indian and Western philosophy?

Despite their differences, Indian and Western philosophy share some important similarities. Both traditions are concerned with the fundamental questions of human existence, such as the nature of reality, the meaning of life, and the nature of the self. Both traditions also have a long history of debate and discussion about these questions.

One of the most important similarities between Indian and Western philosophy is their emphasis on the importance of reason. Both traditions believe that reason is essential for understanding the world and for living a good life. They also both believe that reason can be used to resolve conflicts and to promote peace and understanding.

Another important similarity between Indian and Western philosophy is their emphasis on the importance of compassion. Both traditions believe that compassion is essential for living a good life. They also both believe that compassion can be used to reduce suffering and to promote happiness.

3. What are the contributions of Indian philosophy to the world?

Indian philosophy has made many important contributions to the world. Some of the most important contributions include the development of the concept of karma, the concept of reincarnation, and the concept of ahimsa (non-violence). Indian philosophy has also made important contributions to the fields of logic, ethics, and metaphysics.

One of the most important contributions of Indian philosophy is the development of the concept of karma. Karma is the idea that every action has a corresponding reaction, either in this life or in a future life. This concept has had a profound impact on Indian culture and has also been influential in other parts of the world.

Another important contribution of Indian philosophy is the concept of reincarnation. Reincarnation is the idea that the soul is reborn into a new body after death. This concept has also had a profound impact on Indian culture and has also been influential in other parts of the world.

Finally, Indian philosophy has made important contributions to the field of ethics. One of the most important ethical concepts in Indian philosophy is ahimsa, or non-violence. Ahimsa is the idea that all living beings are interconnected and that violence against one being is violence against all beings. This concept has had a profound impact on Indian culture and has also been influential in other parts of the world.

4. What are the contributions of Western philosophy to the world?

Western philosophy has made many important contributions to the world. Some of the most important contributions include the development of the scientific method, the development of Democracy, and the development of the concept of Human Rights. Western philosophy has also made important contributions to the fields of logic, ethics, and metaphysics.

One of the most important contributions of Western philosophy is the development of the scientific method. The scientific method is a process of experimentation and observation that is used to test hypotheses and to develop theories. The scientific method has had a profound impact on our understanding of the world and has led to many important technological advances.

Another important contribution of Western philosophy is the development of democracy. Democracy is a form of government in which the people have a say in how they are governed. Democracy has had a profound impact on the world and has led to many important social and political reforms.

Finally, Western philosophy has made important contributions to the field of human rights. Human rights are the basic rights and freedoms that all human beings are entitled to, regardless of their race, religion, nationality, or any other status. The concept of human rights has had a profound impact on the world and has led to many important changes in the way that people are treated.

Which of the following is not a characteristic of Indian philosophy?
(A) It is based on the Vedas.
(B) It is concerned with the nature of reality.
(C) It is focused on the individual’s quest for liberation.
(D) It is atheistic.
Which of the following is not a characteristic of Western philosophy?
(A) It is based on reason.
(B) It is concerned with the nature of knowledge.
(C) It is focused on the individual’s moral development.
(D) It is theistic.
Which of the following is a similarity between Indian and Western philosophy?
(A) Both traditions are concerned with the nature of reality.
(B) Both traditions are based on a set of sacred texts.
(C) Both traditions have a long history of debate and discussion.
(D) Both traditions have had a significant impact on the development of human thought.
Which of the following is a difference between Indian and Western philosophy?
(A) Indian philosophy is more concerned with the individual’s quest for liberation, while Western philosophy is more concerned with the individual’s moral development.
(B) Indian philosophy is based on the Vedas, while Western philosophy is based on reason.
(C) Indian philosophy is atheistic, while Western philosophy is theistic.
(D) Indian philosophy is more concerned with the nature of reality, while Western philosophy is more concerned with the nature of knowledge.
Which of the following is a contribution of Indian philosophy to the world?
(A) The concept of karma.
(B) The concept of dharma.
(C) The concept of nirvana.
(D) All of the above.
Which of the following is a contribution of Western philosophy to the world?
(A) The concept of democracy.
(B) The concept of human rights.
(C) The concept of the scientific method.
(D) All of the above.
Which of the following is a difference between Indian and Western philosophy that has been the subject of much debate?
(A) The nature of reality.
(B) The nature of knowledge.
(C) The nature of the individual.
(D) All of the above.
Which of the following is a similarity between Indian and Western philosophy that has been the subject of much debate?
(A) The importance of reason.
(B) The importance of experience.
(C) The importance of tradition.
(D) All of the above.
Which of the following is a conclusion that can be drawn from the study of Indian and Western philosophy?
(A) There is no one right way to think about the world.
(B) All philosophies are equally valid.
(C) All philosophies are equally invalid.
(D) It is impossible to compare Indian and Western philosophy.
Which of the following is a question that remains unanswered in the study of Indian and Western philosophy?
(A) What is the nature of reality?
(B) What is the nature of knowledge?
(C) What is the nature of the individual?
(D) All of the above.