Aristotle is one of the greatest thinkers in the history of western science and philosophy, making contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. Although we do not actually possess any of Aristotle’s own writings intended for publication, we have volumes of the lecture notes he delivered for his students; through these Aristotle was to exercise his profound influence through the ages. Indeed, the medieval outlook is sometimes considered to be the “Aristotelian worldview” and St. Thomas Aquinas simply refers to Aristotle as “The Philosopher” as though there were no other.
One of Aristotle’s most influential works is the Nicomachean Ethics, where he presents a theory of happiness that is still relevant today, over 2,300 years later. The key question Aristotle seeks to answer in these lectures is “What is the ultimate purpose of human existence?” What is that end or goal for which we should direct all of our activities? Everywhere we see people seeking pleasure, wealth, and a good reputation. But while each of these has some value, none of them can occupy the place of the chief good for which humanity should aim. To be an ultimate end, an act must be self-sufficient and final, “that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else” (Nicomachean Ethics), and it must be attainable by man. Aristotle claims that nearly everyone would agree that happiness is the end which meets all these requirements. It is easy enough to see that we desire Money, pleasure, and honor only because we believe that these goods will make us happy. It seems that all other goods are a means towards obtaining happiness, while happiness is always an end in itself.
According to Aristotle, happiness consists in achieving, through the course of a whole lifetime, all the goods — Health, wealth, knowledge, friends, etc. — that lead to the perfection of human nature and to the enrichment of human life. This requires us to make choices, some of which may be very difficult. Often the lesser good promises immediate pleasure and is more tempting, while the greater good is painful and requires some sort of sacrifice. For example, it may be easier and more enjoyable to spend the night watching television, but you know that you will be better off if you spend it researching for your term paper. Developing a good character requires a strong effort of will to do the right thing, even in difficult situations.
Another example is the taking of drugs, which is becoming more and more of a problem in our Society today. For a fairly small price, one can immediately take one’s mind off of one’s troubles and experience deep euphoria by popping an oxycontin pill or snorting some cocaine. Yet, inevitably, this short-term pleasure will lead to longer term pain. A few hours later you may feel miserable and so need to take the drug again, which leads to a never-ending spiral of need and relief. Addiction inevitably drains your funds and provides a burden to your friends and family. All of those virtues — generosity, temperance, friendship, courage, etc. — that make up the good life appear to be conspicuously absent in a life of drug use.
Confucius
Confucius lived during the Spring and Autumn period (777 BC to 476 BC) of the Eastern or Later Zhou Dynasty (770 BC – 256 BC). It was a time in China’s history when the great Zhou dynasty had broken down and the country was divided among rival factions. Confucius traveled from State to State to teach what he believed to be the best approach to government and civilization.
Wherever he went, he sought positions in government as an advisor or administrator, but only briefly held a few such posts. While he attracted a large number of students and followers, his views and advice were not popular among the kings nor were they considered practical. A number of his students were able to make successful careers in government; perhaps they were more flexible or more politic.
The writings of Confucius would seem to appeal to a feudal lord. Confucius taught that the subordinate owed obedience and honor to his superior. This began in the home where the father was held to be the absolute ruler. The family was to follow him in all decisions and look to him for guidance and wisdom. This principle, filial piety, was then applied to the organization of civilization and government. The individual household owed allegiance and obedience to the local ruler who in turn honored and obeyed those above him.
Confucius relished the idea of ceremony and promoted it as a means to serve as a visual and behavioral reminder of rank. The external signs or rituals of society were to regulate both day to day exchanges as well as the ceremonies of State. Rank was dignified by rituals as well as privilege. Each rank would have specific roles in religious and political ceremonies and would be limited to certain ceremonies they could conduct. Included in the idea of ceremony were the clothes that you were to wear, the insignias on the clothing or your carriage, the style of hat worn on special occasions, where you could and could not walk, and even the colors you were allowed to use in clothing and decoration. Only the Emperor was to use and wear certain colors of gold, crimson, and purple.
One would think that rulers would embrace such a militaristic organization of the Population. However, Confucius also taught that rulers must be responsible to their subordinates. They earned their privilege through promoting the welfare of the populace. When a father or a ruler betrayed that trust, the children or the subjects had the right and duty to disobey, to overthrow the ruler. At heart he was a humanist. When Confucius did manage to secure a position in court in one of the kingdoms, he didn’t last long. The kingdoms were preoccupied with war. Resources which Confucius thought should be spent on benevolence were channeled into either defense of territory or the acquisition of new territories.
Confucius seldom stayed in a place for a long time. Either the kings and dukes didn’t have much patience with the idea of tempering their power and he was quickly dismissed or he would leave in disgust when prescribed rituals were violated. He despaired when he would witness minor nobles engage in the rituals of kings. He felt insulted when the proper courtesies due his rank were abridged or forgotten altogether. He left disciples and students behind who had been exposed to a radical form of thought. Perhaps, in part. because he traveled so extensively, Confucian thought spread widely following his death. His students carried it to all corners of China. It influenced other forms of Chinese philosophy such as that of Mencius and the Legalists. As a philosophy it was a deliberate consideration of the function and responsibility of government and society. It contained a moral code that applied to the minutia of greeting a friend as well as to the proper function and ethics of government. By the time that the King of Qin (221 BC) conquered the neighboring States and declared himself as Shi Huang Di, Emperor of China, Confucianism was a powerful force. As one of his first acts as emperor, Huang Di ordered that all of the books of Confucius should be burnt and the Confucian scholars executed. Huang Di then embarked upon a total reorganization of society and government, one based on absolute power, forced labor, conscripted military, and central control. In a few short years he was able to join and lengthen the Great Wall, build roads, dig canals, and build the great mausoleum at Xi’an for himself. The violence and disrespect for traditional values led to the overthrow of the Qin dynasty only 21 years after its inception. The Han dynasty, which replaced it, returned to Confucian principles and lasted until 220 AD.
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Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, esthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.
Aristotle was born in the city of Stagira in northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician of King Amyntas III of Macedon. When Nicomachus died when Aristotle was a child, his guardian Proxenus took him to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy. Aristotle remained at the Academy for twenty years, until Plato’s death in 347 BC. After Plato’s death, Aristotle left Athens and traveled around Greece for several years. In 343 BC, he was invited by Philip II of Macedon to become the tutor of his son, Alexander the Great. Aristotle accepted the invitation and remained in Macedon for three years, during which time he taught Alexander a wide range of subjects, including politics, ethics, and rhetoric.
In 335 BC, Aristotle returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lyceum. The Lyceum was a center of Learning and research, and Aristotle attracted a large number of students from all over Greece. Aristotle taught at the Lyceum for twelve years, until his death in 322 BC.
Aristotle’s writings cover a wide range of subjects, and he is considered one of the most influential philosophers of all time. His work has had a profound impact on Western thought, and his ideas continue to be studied and debated today.
Aristotle’s philosophy can be divided into three main areas: logic, metaphysics, and ethics.
Logic is the study of reasoning. Aristotle was the first person to develop a systematic theory of logic. He believed that logic was the foundation of all knowledge, and he developed a system of logic that is still used today.
Metaphysics is the study of the fundamental nature of reality. Aristotle believed that there are four causes of everything that exists: material cause, formal cause, efficient cause, and final cause. The material cause is the matter out of which something is made. The formal cause is the shape or structure of something. The efficient cause is the agent that brings something into existence. The final cause is the purpose or goal of something.
Ethics is the study of morality. Aristotle believed that the highest good for humans is happiness. He argued that happiness can be achieved through living a life of virtue. Virtue is the mean between two extremes. For example, courage is the mean between cowardice and recklessness.
Aristotle’s philosophy has had a profound impact on Western thought. His ideas about logic, metaphysics, and ethics have been studied and debated for centuries. His work continues to be relevant today, and it is essential reading for anyone interested in philosophy.
Aristotle’s influence can be seen in many areas of Western thought, including philosophy, science, politics, and literature. His ideas about logic and reasoning have been foundational for Western philosophy. His work on biology and zoology laid the foundation for modern science. His ideas about politics and government have been influential in the development of Western political thought. And his work on aesthetics has had a profound impact on Western literature and art.
Aristotle’s work is vast and complex, and it is impossible to do Justice to it in a short space. However, I hope that this brief overview has given you a sense of his importance and his enduring influence.
1. What is the meaning of life?
The meaning of life is a question that has been asked by philosophers and theologians for centuries. There is no one answer that everyone agrees on, but some possible answers include:
To find happiness and fulfillment.
To make a difference in the world.
To learn and grow as a person.
To connect with others and build relationships.
To experience the beauty of the world.
Ultimately, the meaning of life is up to each individual to decide.
2. What is the nature of reality?
The nature of reality is another question that has been debated for centuries. There are many different theories about what reality is, but some of the most common include:
Reality is objective and exists independently of our minds.
Reality is subjective and is created by our minds.
Reality is a combination of both objective and subjective Elements.
The nature of reality is a complex and difficult question to answer, and there is no one answer that everyone agrees on.
3. What is the purpose of art?
The purpose of art is a question that has been debated by artists, philosophers, and critics for centuries. There is no one answer that everyone agrees on, but some possible answers include:
To express emotions and ideas.
To create beauty.
To entertain.
To teach or inspire.
To challenge the status quo.
The purpose of art is ultimately up to the individual artist to decide.
4. What is the relationship between mind and body?
The relationship between mind and body is a question that has been debated by philosophers and scientists for centuries. There are many different theories about the relationship between mind and body, but some of the most common include:
The mind and body are two separate entities.
The mind and body are one and the same.
The mind and body interact in a complex way.
The relationship between mind and body is a complex and difficult question to answer, and there is no one answer that everyone agrees on.
5. What is the nature of consciousness?
The nature of consciousness is a question that has been debated by philosophers and scientists for centuries. There is no one answer that everyone agrees on, but some possible answers include:
Consciousness is a physical phenomenon that can be explained by science.
Consciousness is a non-physical phenomenon that cannot be explained by science.
Consciousness is a combination of both physical and non-physical elements.
The nature of consciousness is a complex and difficult question to answer, and there is no one answer that everyone agrees on.
Which of the following is not one of Aristotle’s four causes? (A) Material cause (B) Efficient cause (C) Formal cause (D) Final cause
Aristotle’s theory of ethics is based on the idea of (A) Eudaimonia (B) The Golden Mean (C) The Just Mean (D) The Good Life
Aristotle’s theory of politics is based on the idea of (A) The polis (B) The republic (C) The Democracy (D) The Monarchy
Aristotle’s theory of logic is based on the idea of (A) The syllogism (B) The enthymeme (C) The dilemma (D) The apodosis
Aristotle’s theory of rhetoric is based on the idea of (A) The three appeals (B) The five canons (C) The three genres (D) The three styles
Aristotle’s theory of aesthetics is based on the idea of (A) Mimesis (B) Catharsis (C) The sublime (D) The beautiful
Aristotle’s theory of biology is based on the idea of (A) The four causes (B) The scala naturae (C) The theory of evolution (D) The theory of natural selection
Aristotle’s theory of physics is based on the idea of (A) The four elements (B) The four causes (C) The theory of motion (D) The theory of gravity
Aristotle’s theory of psychology is based on the idea of (A) The soul (B) The mind (C) The intellect (D) The will
Aristotle’s theory of metaphysics is based on the idea of (A) The four causes (B) The four elements (C) The theory of motion (D) The theory of being