Aristotle

Aristotle is one of the greatest thinkers in the history of western science and philosophy, making contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student of Plato who in turn studied under Socrates. Although we do not actually possess any of Aristotle’s own writings intended for publication, we have volumes of the lecture notes he delivered for his students; through these Aristotle was to exercise his profound influence through the ages. Indeed, the medieval outlook is sometimes considered to be the “Aristotelian worldview” and St. Thomas Aquinas simply refers to Aristotle as “The Philosopher” as though there were no other.

One of Aristotle’s most influential works is the Nicomachean Ethics, where he presents a theory of happiness that is still relevant today, over 2,300 years later. The key question Aristotle seeks to answer in these lectures is “What is the ultimate purpose of human existence?” What is that end or goal for which we should direct all of our activities? Everywhere we see people seeking pleasure, wealth, and a good reputation. But while each of these has some value, none of them can occupy the place of the chief good for which humanity should aim. To be an ultimate end, an act must be self-sufficient and final, “that which is always desirable in itself and never for the sake of something else” (Nicomachean Ethics), and it must be attainable by man. Aristotle claims that nearly everyone would agree that happiness is the end which meets all these requirements. It is easy enough to see that we desire Money, pleasure, and honor only because we believe that these goods will make us happy. It seems that all other goods are a means towards obtaining happiness, while happiness is always an end in itself.

According to Aristotle, happiness consists in achieving, through the course of a whole lifetime, all the goods — Health, wealth, knowledge, friends, etc. — that lead to the perfection of human nature and to the enrichment of human life. This requires us to make choices, some of which may be very difficult. Often the lesser good promises immediate pleasure and is more tempting, while the greater good is painful and requires some sort of sacrifice. For example, it may be easier and more enjoyable to spend the night watching television, but you know that you will be better off if you spend it researching for your term paper. Developing a good character requires a strong effort of will to do the right thing, even in difficult situations.

Another example is the taking of drugs, which is becoming more and more of a problem in our Society today. For a fairly small price, one can immediately take one’s mind off of one’s troubles and experience deep euphoria by popping an oxycontin pill or snorting some cocaine. Yet, inevitably, this short-term pleasure will lead to longer term pain. A few hours later you may feel miserable and so need to take the drug again, which leads to a never-ending spiral of need and relief. Addiction inevitably drains your funds and provides a burden to your friends and family. All of those virtues — generosity, temperance, friendship, courage, etc. — that make up the good life appear to be conspicuously absent in a life of drug use.

Confucius

Confucius lived during the Spring and Autumn period (777 BC to 476 BC) of the Eastern or Later Zhou Dynasty (770 BC – 256 BC). It was a time in China’s history when the great Zhou dynasty had broken down and the country was divided among rival factions. Confucius traveled from State to State to teach what he believed to be the best approach to government and civilization.

Wherever he went, he sought positions in government as an advisor or administrator, but only briefly held a few such posts. While he attracted a large number of students and followers, his views and advice were not popular among the kings nor were they considered practical. A number of his students were able to make successful careers in government; perhaps they were more flexible or more politic.

The writings of Confucius would seem to appeal to a feudal lord. Confucius taught that the subordinate owed obedience and honor to his superior. This began in the home where the father was held to be the absolute ruler. The family was to follow him in all decisions and look to him for guidance and wisdom. This principle, filial piety, was then applied to the organization of civilization and government. The individual household owed allegiance and obedience to the local ruler who in turn honored and obeyed those above him.

Confucius relished the idea of ceremony and promoted it as a means to serve as a visual and behavioral reminder of rank. The external signs or rituals of society were to regulate both day to day exchanges as well as the ceremonies of State. Rank was dignified by rituals as well as privilege. Each rank would have specific roles in religious and political ceremonies and would be limited to certain ceremonies they could conduct. Included in the idea of ceremony were the clothes that you were to wear, the insignias on the clothing or your carriage, the style of hat worn on special occasions, where you could and could not walk, and even the colors you were allowed to use in clothing and decoration. Only the Emperor was to use and wear certain colors of gold, crimson, and purple.

One would think that rulers would embrace such a militaristic organization of the Population. However, Confucius also taught that rulers must be responsible to their subordinates. They earned their privilege through promoting the welfare of the populace. When a father or a ruler betrayed that trust, the children or the subjects had the right and duty to disobey, to overthrow the ruler. At heart he was a humanist. When Confucius did manage to secure a position in court in one of the kingdoms, he didn’t last long. The kingdoms were preoccupied with war. Resources which Confucius thought should be spent on benevolence were channeled into either defense of territory or the acquisition of new territories.

Confucius seldom stayed in a place for a long time. Either the kings and dukes didn’t have much patience with the idea of tempering their power and he was quickly dismissed or he would leave in disgust when prescribed rituals were violated. He despaired when he would witness minor nobles engage in the rituals of kings. He felt insulted when the proper courtesies due his rank were abridged or forgotten altogether. He left disciples and students behind who had been exposed to a radical form of thought. Perhaps, in part. because he traveled so extensively, Confucian thought spread widely following his death. His students carried it to all corners of China. It influenced other forms of Chinese philosophy such as that of Mencius and the Legalists. As a philosophy it was a deliberate consideration of the function and responsibility of government and society. It contained a moral code that applied to the minutia of greeting a friend as well as to the proper function and ethics of government. By the time that the King of Qin (221 BC) conquered the neighboring States and declared himself as Shi Huang Di, Emperor of China, Confucianism was a powerful force. As one of his first acts as emperor, Huang Di ordered that all of the books of Confucius should be burnt and the Confucian scholars executed. Huang Di then embarked upon a total reorganization of society and government, one based on absolute power, forced labor, conscripted military, and central control. In a few short years he was able to join and lengthen the Great Wall, build roads, dig canals, and build the great mausoleum at Xi’an for himself. The violence and disrespect for traditional values led to the overthrow of the Qin dynasty only 21 years after its inception. The Han dynasty, which replaced it, returned to Confucian principles and lasted until 220 AD.

Aristotle (384-322 BC) was a Greek philosopher and polymath during the Classical period in Ancient Greece. Taught by Plato, he was the founder of the Lyceum, the Peripatetic school of philosophy, and the Aristotelian tradition. His writings cover many subjects including physics, biology, zoology, metaphysics, logic, ethics, esthetics, poetry, theater, music, rhetoric, psychology, linguistics, economics, politics, meteorology, geology and government. Aristotle provided a complex synthesis of the various philosophies existing prior to him. It was above all from his teachings that the West inherited its intellectual lexicon, as well as problems and methods of inquiry. As a result, his philosophy has exerted a unique influence on almost every form of knowledge in the West and it continues to be a subject of contemporary philosophical discussion.

Aristotle was born in Stagira, Chalkidiki, in northern Greece. His father, Nicomachus, was the personal physician of Amyntas III of Macedon, the grandfather of Alexander the Great. When Aristotle was 17 years old, he went to Athens to study at Plato’s Academy. He remained at the Academy for 20 years, until Plato’s death in 347 BC.

After Plato’s death, Aristotle left Athens and traveled to Asia Minor, where he worked as a tutor to the young Alexander the Great. In 335 BC, he returned to Athens and founded his own school, the Lyceum. The Lyceum was a center of Learning and research, and Aristotle attracted many students from all over Greece.

Aristotle died in Chalcis, Euboea, in 322 BC. He was 62 years old.

Aristotle’s works are divided into three main categories: logical works, scientific works, and ethical and political works.

The logical works include the Prior Analytics, the Posterior Analytics, the Topics, and the Sophistical Refutations. These works deal with the nature of logic and how it can be used to acquire knowledge.

The scientific works include the Physics, the Metaphysics, the De Anima, the De Partibus Animalium, and the Historia Animalium. These works deal with the natural world, including physics, biology, psychology, and zoology.

The ethical and political works include the Nicomachean Ethics, the Eudemian Ethics, the Politics, and the Rhetoric. These works deal with ethics, politics, and rhetoric.

Aristotle’s philosophy is vast and complex, but some of its central themes include the following:

The importance of logic: Aristotle believed that logic was the foundation of all knowledge. He developed a system of logic that is still used today.
The importance of observation: Aristotle believed that knowledge should be based on observation of the natural world. He conducted many experiments and observations, and his work in biology and zoology was groundbreaking.
The importance of teleology: Aristotle believed that everything in the natural world has a purpose. He argued that the goal of human life is to achieve eudaimonia, or happiness.
The importance of the mean: Aristotle believed that the best way to live is to avoid extremes and to find the middle ground. He argued that virtue is a mean between two vices.
The importance of the state: Aristotle believed that the state is the natural form of human association. He argued that the best state is a republic, in which the people rule themselves.

Aristotle’s philosophy has had a profound influence on Western thought. His ideas about logic, science, ethics, and politics have shaped the way we think about the world. His work continues to be studied and debated by philosophers today.

Aristotle’s influence can be seen in many areas of Western thought, including philosophy, science, politics, and literature. His ideas about logic and scientific method have been foundational for Western science. His ideas about ethics and politics have been influential in both Western and Eastern thought. And his work on rhetoric and poetics has had a profound impact on Western literature.

Aristotle’s work is still studied and debated today. His ideas are complex and often difficult to understand, but they are also profound and insightful. Aristotle’s work is essential reading for anyone who wants to understand the history of Western thought.

What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?

A hypothesis is a tentative statement about the relationship between two or more variables. A theory is a well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world, based on a body of facts that have been repeatedly confirmed through observation and experiment.

What is the scientific method?

The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. Just like with any experiment, the scientific method starts with a question.

What is the difference between a fact and an opinion?

A fact is a statement that can be proven to be true. An opinion is a belief that is not necessarily true or false.

What is the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that uses specific examples to arrive at a general conclusion. Deductive reasoning is a type of reasoning that uses a general statement to arrive at a specific conclusion.

What is the difference between a correlation and a causation?

A correlation is a relationship between two variables that shows that they tend to vary together. A causation is a relationship between two variables in which one variable causes the other to vary.

What is the difference between a population and a sample?

A population is a group of all individuals of interest in a study. A sample is a subset of a population.

What is the difference between a descriptive statistic and an inferential statistic?

A descriptive statistic is a summary of a set of data. An inferential statistic is a statistic that is used to make inferences about a population based on data from a sample.

What is the difference between a mean, Median, and mode?

The mean is the Average of a set of data. The median is the middle value in a set of data. The mode is the most common value in a set of data.

What is the difference between a normal distribution and a skewed distribution?

A normal distribution is a bell-shaped curve that is symmetrical around the mean. A skewed distribution is a curve that is not symmetrical around the mean.

What is the difference between a p-value and a confidence interval?

A p-value is a Probability that measures the evidence against the null hypothesis. A confidence interval is a range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population parameter.

What is the difference between a hypothesis test and a confidence interval?

A hypothesis test is a statistical test that is used to determine whether there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis. A confidence interval is a range of values that is likely to contain the true value of a population parameter.

What is the difference between a significance level and a confidence level?

A significance level is the probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. A confidence level is the probability that a confidence interval contains the true value of a population parameter.

What is the difference between a type I error and a type II error?

A type I error is the error of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true. A type II error is the error of failing to reject the null hypothesis when it is false.

Which of the following is not a branch of philosophy?
(A) Logic
(B) Ethics
(C) Metaphysics
(D) Aristotle
Which of the following is not a tenet of empiricism?
(A) All knowledge comes from experience.
(B) The mind is a blank slate at birth.
(C) Knowledge is based on sense perception.
(D) The only thing we can know for certain is our own existence.
Which of the following is not a tenet of rationalism?
(A) Knowledge is based on reason.
(B) The mind is not a blank slate at birth.
(C) Some knowledge is innate.
(D) The only thing we can know for certain is our own existence.
Which of the following is not a tenet of existentialism?
(A) Existence precedes essence.
(B) We are all free to choose our own destiny.
(C) We are all responsible for our own actions.
(D) The world is absurd and meaningless.
Which of the following is not a tenet of nihilism?
(A) There is no objective meaning or purpose to life.
(B) All values are subjective.
(C) There is no such thing as truth.
(D) We should all strive to live a life of pleasure.
Which of the following is not a tenet of hedonism?
(A) The only good in life is pleasure.
(B) The only evil in life is pain.
(C) We should all strive to live a life of pleasure.
(D) We should all strive to live a life of virtue.
Which of the following is not a tenet of Stoicism?
(A) We should accept what we cannot change.
(B) We should live in accordance with nature.
(C) We should strive to live a life of virtue.
(D) We should all strive to live a life of pleasure.
Which of the following is not a tenet of Confucianism?
(A) The family is the basic unit of society.
(B) Education is essential for a good life.
(C) We should all strive to live a life of virtue.
(D) We should all strive to live a life of pleasure.
Which of the following is not a tenet of Buddhism-2/”>Buddhism?
(A) Suffering is an inevitable part of life.
(B) The cause of suffering is desire.
(C) The way to end suffering is to extinguish desire.
(D) We should all strive to live a life of pleasure.
Which of the following is not a tenet of Hinduism-2/”>Hinduism?
(A) There is a cycle of rebirth and death.
(B) The goal of life is to achieve moksha, or liberation from the cycle of rebirth.
(C) The way to achieve moksha is to follow the path of dharma, or right action.
(D) We should all strive to live a life of pleasure.