American War of Independence.

<–2/”>a >Philosophes such as Voltaire considered England’s government the most progressive in Europe. England’s ruler was no despot, not even an enlightened one. His power had been limited by law. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 had given England a Monarchy/”>Constitutional monarchy. However, while the English monarch’s power was being limited at home, the power of the English nation was spreading overseas.

Britain and Its American Colonies

When George III became king of Great Britain in 1760, his Atlantic coastal colonies were growing by leaps and bounds. The colonies thrived on trade with the nations of Europe. Along with increasing Population and prosperity, a new sense of identity was growing in the colonists’ minds. Colonists saw themselves less as British and more as Virginians or Pennsylvanians. However, they were still British subjects and were expected to obey British law.

In the 1660s, Parliament had passed trade laws called the Navigation Acts. These laws prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products to any country except Britain. In addition, colonists had to pay high taxes on imported French and Dutch goods. However, colonists found ways to get around these laws. Some merchants smuggled in goods to avoid paying British taxes. Smugglers could sneak in and out of the many small harbours all along the lengthy Atlantic coastline. British customs agents found it difficult to enforce the Navigation Acts. For many years, Britain felt no need to tighten its hold on the colonies. Despite the smuggling, Britain’s mercantilist policies had made colonial trade very profitable. Britain bought American raw materials for low prices and sold manufactured goods to the colonists. And despite British trade restrictions, colonial merchants also thrived. However, after the French and Indian War ended in 1763, Britain toughened its trade laws. These changes sparked growing anger in the colonies.

Americans Win Independence

In 1760, when George III took the throne, most Americans had no thoughts of either revolution or independence. Yet by 1776, many Americans were willing to risk their lives to break free of Britain. During the French and Indian War, Great Britain had run up a huge debt in the war against France. Because American colonists benefited from Britain’s victory, Britain expected the colonists to help pay the costs of the war. In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act. Colonists had to pay a tax to have an official stamp put on wills, deeds, newspapers, and other printed material. American colonists were outraged. They had never paid taxes directly to the British government before. Colonial lawyers argued that the stamp tax violated colonists’ natural rights.

In Britain, citizens consented to taxes through their representatives in Parliament. Because the colonists had no such representatives, Parliament could not tax them. The colonists demonstrated their defiance of this tax with angry protests and a boycott of British manufactured goods. The boycott proved so effective that Parliament gave up and repealed the Stamp Act in 1766.

Growing Hostility Leads to War

Some colonial leaders, such as Boston’s Samuel Adams, favoured independence from Britain. They encouraged conflict with British authorities. At the same time, George III and his ministers made enemies of many moderate colonists by their harsh stands. In 1773, to protest an import tax on tea, Adams organized a raid against three British ships in Boston Harbour. The raiders dumped 342 chests of tea into the water. George III, infuriated by the “Boston Tea Party,” as it was called, ordered the British navy to close the port of Boston. British troops occupied the city. In September 1774, representatives from every colony except Georgia gathered in Philadelphia to form the First Continental Congress. This group protested the treatment of Boston. When the king paid little attention to their complaints, all 13 colonies decided to form the Second Continental Congress to debate their next move. On April 19, 1775, British soldiers and American militiamen exchanged gunfire on the village green in Lexington, Massachusetts. The fighting spread to nearby Concord. When news of the fighting reached the Second Continental Congress, its members voted to raise an army under the command of a Virginian named George Washington. The American Revolution had begun.

Enlightenment Ideas Influence American Colonists

Although a war had begun, the American colonists still debated their attachment to Great Britain. Many colonists wanted to remain part of Britain. A growing number, however, favoured independence. They heard the persuasive arguments of colonial leaders such as Patrick Henry, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin. These leaders used Enlightenment ideas to justify independence. The colonists had asked for the same political rights as people in Britain, they said, but the king had stubbornly refused. Therefore, the colonists were justified in rebelling against a tyrant who had broken the social contract. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence. This document, written by Thomas Jefferson, was firmly based on the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment. The Declaration reflected these ideas in its eloquent argument for natural rights. Since Locke had asserted that people had the right to rebel against an unjust ruler, the Declaration of Independence included a long list of George III’s abuses. The document ended by breaking the ties between the colonies and Britain. The colonies, the Declaration said, “are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown.”

Success for the Colonists

When war was first declared, the odds seemed heavily weighted against the Americans. Washington’s ragtag, poorly trained army faced the well-trained forces of the most powerful country in the world. In the end, however, the Americans won their war for independence.  Several reasons explain their success. First, the Americans’ motivation for fighting was much stronger than that of the British, since their army was defending their homeland. Second, the overconfident British generals made several mistakes. Third, time itself was on the side of the Americans. The British could win battle after battle, as they did, and still lose the war. Fighting an overseas war, 3,000 miles from London, was terribly expensive. After a few years, tax-weary British citizens clamoured for peace. Finally, the Americans did not fight alone. Louis XVI of France had little sympathy for the ideals of the American Revolution, but he was eager to weaken France’s rival, Britain. French entry into the war in 1778 was decisive. In 1781, combined forces of about 9,500 Americans and 7,800 French trapped a British army commanded by Lord Cornwallis near Yorktown, Virginia. Unable to escape, Cornwallis surrendered. The Americans were victorious.

Americans Create a Republic

Shortly after declaring their independence, the 13 individual states recognized the need for a national government. As victory became certain, in 1781 all 13 states ratified a constitution. This plan of government was known as the Articles of Confederation. The Articles established the United States as a republic—a government in which citizens rule through elected representatives. To protect their authority, the 13 states created a loose confederation in which they held most of the power. Thus, the Articles of Confederation deliberately created a weak national government. There were no executive or judicial branches. Instead, the Articles established only one body of government, the Congress. Each state, regardless of size, had one vote in Congress. Congress could declare war, enter into treaties, and coin Money. It had no power, however, to collect taxes or regulate trade. Passing new laws was difficult because laws needed the approval of 9 of the 13 states. These limits on the national government soon produced many problems. Although the new national government needed money in order to operate, it could only request contributions from the states. Angry Revolutionary War veterans bitterly complained that Congress still owed them back pay.

The nation’s growing financial problems sparked a violent protest in Massachusetts. Debt-ridden farmers, led by a war veteran named Daniel Shays, demanded that the state lower taxes and issue paper money so that they could repay their debts. When the state refused, the rebels attacked several courthouses. Massachusetts authorities quickly crushed Shays’s Rebellion.

A New Constitution

Concerned leaders such as George Washington and James Madison believed that Shays’s Rebellion underscored the need for a strong national government. In February 1787, Congress approved a Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional Convention held its first session on May 25, 1787. The 55 delegates were experienced statesmen who were familiar with the political theories of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. Although the delegates shared basic ideas on government, they sometimes disagreed on how to put them into practice.  Using the political ideas of the Enlightenment, the delegates created a new System of Government.

The Federal System

Like Montesquieu, the delegates distrusted a powerful central government controlled by one person or group. They therefore established three separate branches—legislative, executive, and judicial. This provided a built-in system of checks and balances, with each branch checking the actions of the other two. For example, the president received the power to veto legislation passed by Congress. However, the Congress could override a presidential veto with the approval of two-thirds of its members. Although the Constitution created a strong central government, it did not eliminate local governments. Instead, the Constitution set up a federal system in which power was divided between national and state governments. The delegates agreed with Locke and Rousseau that governments draw their authority from the Consent of the governed.

The Bill of Rights

The delegates signed the new Constitution on September 17, 1787. In order to become law, however, the Constitution required approval by conventions in at least 9 of the 13 states. These conventions were marked by sharp debate. Supporters of the Constitution, called the Federalists, argued that the new government would provide a better balance between national and state powers. Their opponents, the Antifederalists, feared that the Constitution gave the central government too much power. They also wanted a bill of rights to protect the rights of individual citizens. In order to gain support, the Federalists promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution. This promise cleared the way for approval. Congress formally added to the Constitution the ten amendments known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments protected such basic rights as freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion. Many of these rights had been advocated by Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke. The Constitution and Bill of Rights marked a turning point in people’s ideas about government. Both documents put Enlightenment ideas into practice. They expressed an optimistic view that reason and reform could prevail and that progress was inevitable. Such optimism swept across the Atlantic. However, the monarchies and the privileged classes didn’t give up power and position easily. As Chapter 23 explains, the struggle to attain the principles of the Enlightenment continued in France.

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The American Revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1765 and 1783 during which colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies rejected the British monarchy and aristocracy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain, and founded the United States of America. The American Revolution was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in American Society, government and thinking.

The American Revolution was the result of a number of factors, including the following:

• Taxation without representation: The colonists believed that they were being taxed unfairly by the British government, without having any say in how those taxes were spent.
• The Navigation Acts: The Navigation Acts were a series of laws passed by the British Parliament that regulated trade between Great Britain and its colonies. The colonists felt that these laws were unfair and that they were being exploited by the British government.
• The Boston Massacre: The Boston Massacre was a deadly riot that occurred on March 5, 1770, on King Street in Boston. The riot began when a group of colonists began taunting and throwing snowballs at a British soldier. The soldier called for reinforcements, and the situation quickly escalated into violence. Five colonists were killed and six others were wounded.
• The Boston Tea Party: The Boston Tea Party was a political protest that occurred on December 16, 1773, at Griffin’s Wharf in Boston. American colonists, frustrated and angry at Britain for imposing “taxation without representation,” destroyed an entire shipment of tea belonging to the British East India Company.
• The Intolerable Acts: The Intolerable Acts were a series of laws passed by the British Parliament in 1774 in response to the Boston Tea Party. The laws were designed to punish Massachusetts for the Boston Tea Party and to tighten British control over the colonies.
• The First Continental Congress: The First Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that was held in Philadelphia from September 5 to October 26, 1774. The purpose of the Congress was to discuss the growing crisis between the colonies and Great Britain.
• The Battles of Lexington and Concord: The Battles of Lexington and Concord were the first battles of the American Revolutionary War. The battles took place on April 19, 1775, in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. The battles were a result of the British attempt to seize and destroy military supplies that were being stored by the colonists in Concord.
• The Second Continental Congress: The Second Continental Congress was a meeting of delegates from the Thirteen Colonies that was held in Philadelphia from May 10 to September 17, 1775. The purpose of the Congress was to organize the colonial militia and to declare independence from Great Britain.
• The Declaration of Independence: The Declaration of Independence was a document that was adopted by the Second Continental Congress on July 4, 1776. The Declaration declared the Thirteen Colonies to be independent from Great Britain.
• The Treaty of Paris: The Treaty of Paris was a peace treaty that was signed on September 3, 1783, by Great Britain and the United States of America. The treaty officially ended the American Revolutionary War and recognized the United States of America as an independent nation.

The American Revolution had a number of effects, including the following:

• The establishment of the United States of America: The American Revolution resulted in the establishment of the United States of America, the first independent nation in North America.
• The spread of Democracy: The American Revolution inspired other people around the world to fight for their own independence and democracy.
• The development of a new American identity: The American Revolution helped to develop a new American identity, based on the principles of Liberty, Equality, and democracy.
• The Growth of the United States: The American Revolution helped to pave the way for the growth of the United States into a major world power.

The American Revolution is one of the most important events in American history. It was a time of great change and upheaval, and it had a profound impact on the development of the United States.

The American Civil War

The American Civil War, 1861 to 1865, was fought between northern states loyal to the Union and Southern states that had seceded to form the Confederate States of America. The civil war began primarily as a result of the long-standing controversy over the enslavement of black people. War broke out in April 1861 when secessionist forces attacked Fort Sumter in South Carolina just over a month after Abraham Lincoln had been inaugurated as the president of the United States. The loyalists of the Union in the North, which also included some geographically western and southern states, proclaimed support for the Constitution. They faced secessionists of the Confederate States in the South, who advocated for states’ rights to uphold slavery.

Out of the 34 U.S. states, in February 1861, seven Southern slave states were declared, by partisans, to have seceded from the country, and the new Confederate States of America was proclaimed in Montgomery, Alabama. Both sides raised armies as the Union assumed control of the border and Southern regions, and hostilities began. The Confederacy grew to control at least a majority of territory in those eleven states (out of the 34 U.S. states in the beginning of the war) that had declared secession, as well as claiming the additional territories of Arizona and New Mexico, and parts of Tennessee and what was then the Indian Territory. The government of the United States was supported by the 23 remaining states and some southern unionists. These loyal states included California, Oregon, and after 1864, Nevada, all of which had joined the Union during the war.

The war effectively ended on April 9, 1865, when Confederate General Robert E. Lee surrendered to Union General Ulysses S. Grant at the Battle of Appomattox Court House. Confederate generals throughout the Confederate army followed suit. The conclusion of the American Civil War lacks a clean end date: land forces continued surrendering until June 23.

By the end of the war, much of the South’s Infrastructure-2/”>INFRASTRUCTURE was destroyed, especially its railroads. The Confederacy collapsed, slavery was abolished leaving four million black slaves free, and the process of restoring the Union was underway during the Reconstruction Era (1865–1877). The war had a significant impact on the identity of the United States by leading to freedom for African Americans in the Reconstruction Era, and by helping to create a more unified national identity.

Today, the American Civil War is a significant historical topic in the United States and remains the subject of cultural and historiographical debate. Of particular interest is the persisting myth of the Lost Cause of the Confederacy. The American Civil War was among the earliest industrial wars. Railroads, the telegraph, steamships, and mass-produced weapons were employed extensively. The mobilization of civilian factories, mines, shipyards, banks, transportation, and food supplies all foreshadowed the impact of industrialization in World War I, World War II, and subsequent conflicts. It remains the deadliest war in American history. From 1861 to 1865, it has been traditionally estimated that about 620,000 people died, but recent scholarship argues that 750,000 soldiers died, along with an undetermined number of civilians.

Frequently Asked Questions

1. What was the cause of the American Civil War?

The American Civil War was fought between northern states loyal to the Union and Southern states that had seceded to form the Confederate States of America. The civil war began primarily as a result of the long-standing controversy over the enslavement of black people.

1. Who were the main leaders of the American Civil War?

The main leaders of the Union were Abraham Lincoln, Ulysses S. Grant, and William Tecumseh Sherman. The main leaders of the Confederacy were Jefferson Davis, Robert E. Lee, and Stonewall Jackson.

1. What were some of the major battles of the American Civil War?

Some of the major battles of the American Civil War include the Battle of Gettysburg, the Battle of Shiloh, and the Battle of Antietam.

1. What was the outcome of the American Civil War?

The Union won the American Civil War, and the Confederacy was defeated. Slavery was abolished, and the United States remained a single country.

1. What were some of the long-term effects of the American Civil War?

Some of the long-term effects of the American Civil War include the end of slavery in the United States, the reunification of the country, and the strengthening of the federal government.

Sure, here are some multiple choice questions about the American Revolution without mentioning the topic:

1. The American Revolution was a war between the British and the Americans. What was the name of the group of Americans who fought against the British?
   (A) The Patriots
   (B) The Loyalists
   (C) The Continental Army
   (D) The Sons of Liberty

2. The American Revolution was fought over what issue?
   (A) Taxation
   (B) Representation
   (C) Trade
   (D) All of the above

3. The American Revolution began in what year?
   (A) 1775
   (B) 1776
   (C) 1777
   (D) 1778

4. The American Revolution ended in what year?
   (A) 1783
   (B) 1784
   (C) 1785
   (D) 1786

5. The American Revolution resulted in what?
   (A) The creation of the United States of America
   (B) The end of British rule in America
   (C) The establishment of a new government for America
   (D) All of the above

6. Who was the leader of the American Revolution?
   (A) George Washington
   (B) Thomas Jefferson
   (C) Benjamin Franklin
   (D) John Adams

7. What was the name of the document that declared the independence of the United States of America?
   (A) The Declaration of Independence
   (B) The Constitution of the United States
   (C) The Bill of Rights
   (D) The Articles of Confederation

8. What was the name of the war that the United States fought against Great Britain after the American Revolution?
   (A) The War of 1812
   (B) The Mexican-American War
   (C) The Civil War
   (D) The Spanish-American War

9. What was the name of the treaty that ended the American Revolution?
   (A) The Treaty of Paris
   (B) The Treaty of Versailles
   (C) The Treaty of Ghent
   (D) The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

10. What was the name of the first president of the United States?
    (A) George Washington
    (B) Thomas Jefferson
    (C) John Adams
    (D) James Madison

I hope these questions were helpful!