Introduction And Application Of Genetic Engineering
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering, the artificial manipulation, modification, and recombination of DNA or other nucleic acid Molecules in order to modify an organism or Population of organisms.
The term genetic engineering initially referred to various techniques used for the modification or manipulation of organisms through the processes of heredity and Reproduction. As such, the term embraced both artificial selection and all the interventions of biomedical techniques, among them artificial insemination, in vitro fertilization (e.g., “test-tube” babies), cloning, and gene manipulation. In the latter part of the 20th century, however, the term came to refer more specifically to methods of recombinant DNA technology (or gene cloning), in which DNA molecules from two or more sources are combined either within cells or in vitro and are then inserted into host organisms in which they are able to propagate.
The possibility for recombinant DNA technology emerged with the discovery of restriction ENZYMES in 1968 by Swiss microbiologist Werner Arber. The following year American microbiologist Hamilton O. Smith purified so-called type II restriction enzymes, which were found to be essential to genetic engineering for their ability to cleave a specific site within the DNA (as opposed to type I restriction enzymes, which cleave DNA at random sites). Drawing on Smith’s work, American molecular biologist Daniel Nathans helped advance the technique of DNA recombination in 1970–71 and demonstrated that type II enzymes could be useful in genetic studies. Genetic engineering based on recombination was pioneered in 1973 by American biochemists Stanley N. Cohen and Herbert W. Boyer, who were among the first to cut DNA into fragments, rejoin different fragments, and insert the new genes into E. coli bacteria, which then reproduced.
Process And Techniques
Most recombinant DNA technology involves the insertion of foreign genes into the plasmids of common laboratory strains of bacteria. Plasmids are small rings of DNA; they are not part of the bacterium’s chromosome (the main repository of the organism’s genetic information). Nonetheless, they are capable of directing Protein Synthesis, and, like chromosomal DNA, they are reproduced and passed on to the bacterium’s progeny. Thus, by incorporating foreign DNA (for example, a mammalian gene) into a bacterium, researchers can obtain an almost limitless number of copies of the inserted gene. Furthermore, if the inserted gene is operative (i.e., if it directs protein synthesis), the modified bacterium will produce the protein specified by the foreign DNA.
A subsequent generation of genetic engineering techniques that emerged in the early 21st century centred on gene editing. Gene editing, based on a technology known as CRISPR-Cas9, allows researchers to customize a living organism’s genetic sequence by making very specific changes to its DNA. Gene editing has a wide array of applications, being used for the genetic modification of crop Plants and Livestock and of laboratory model organisms (e.g., mice). The correction of genetic errors associated with disease in animals suggests that gene editing has potential applications in gene therapy for humans.
Applications Genetic engineering
Neither the use of animal Vaccines nor adding bovine Growth HORMONES to cows to dramatically increase milk production can match the real excitement in animal husbandry: Transgenic animals and clones. Transgenic animals model advancements in DNA technology in their development. The mechanism for creating one can be described in three steps:
- Healthy egg cells are removed from a female of the host animal and fertilized in the laboratory.
- The desired gene from another species is identified, isolated, and cloned.
- The cloned genes are injected directly into the eggs, which are then surgically implanted in the host female, where the embryo undergoes a normal development process.
Control of Oil Pollution
Oil spills from oil tankers either on water or water surfaces cause a major environmental hazard. Earlier use of chemical dispersants was shown to cause major pollution in shallow water due to their toxic nature and prolong persistence in the Environment.
Various species of Pseudomonas have the property to consume available hydrocarbons from oil and can produce active surface compounds that can emulsify oil in water and thus facilitate easy removal of oil. Dr. Ananda Chakrobarty has engineered a strain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa which produces a glycolipid emulsifier that reduces the Surface Tension of an oil-water interface and thus helps in removal of oil from water.
Many such genetically engineered microbes can be used by mixing with straw, which then will be scattered over the spilled oil, the straw will first soak oily water and then the microbes will break up the oil into non-toxic, non-polluting substances, rendering the environment harmless.
Control of Heavy Metal Pollution
Integrated management of polluted ecosystem by the use of diverse kind of organisms which restore the natural process in the ecosystem is called bioremediation. Application of genetically engineered organisms, specially plants in bioremediation, to rid contaminated Soil from heavy metal toxicity has proved encouraging.
Use of Bio-Pesticides
In developing countries, about 60 to 70% of food, during harvesting and post-harvested period is lost on account of pests. Majority of chemical pesticides, herbicides and fertilisers cause numerous hazards, because these substances release various pollutants in the environment. To minimise the use of chemicals and pesticides, bio-pesticides are being used.
These are compounds derived from natural biological sources like animals, plants; bacteria and can limit the growth of pests. For example, plant-incorporated protectants (PIPs) are bio-pesticides produced by plants through genetic manipulation.
Medicine
Genetic engineering has resulted in a series of medical products. The first two commercially prepared products from recombinant DNA technology were insulin and human growth hormone, both of which were cultured in the E. coli bacteria. Since then a plethora of products have appeared on the market, including the following abbreviated list, all made in E. coli:
- Tumor necrosis factor. Treatment for certain tumor cells
- Interleukin-2 (IL-2). Cancer treatment, immune deficiency, and HIV infection treatment
- Treatment for heart attacks Taxol.
- Treatment for ovarian cancer Interferon. Treatment for cancer and viral infections
In addition, a number of vaccines are now commercially prepared from recombinant hosts. At one time vaccines were made by denaturing the disease and then injecting it into humans with the hope that it would activate their immune system to fight future intrusions by that invader. Unfortunately, the patient sometimes still ended up with the disease.
Crop plants have been and continue to be the focus of Biotechnology as efforts are made to improve yield and profitability by improving crop resistance to insects and certain herbicides and delaying ripening (for better transport and spoilage resistance). The creation of a transgenic plant, one that has received genes from another organism, proved more difficult than animals. Unlike animals, finding a vector for plants proved to be difficult until the isolation of the Ti plasmid, harvested from a tumor-inducing (Ti) bacteria found in the soil. The plasmid is “shot” into a cell, where the plasmid readily attaches to the plant’s DNA. Although successful in fruits and vegetables, the Ti plasmid has generated limited success in grain crops.
Creating a crop that is resistant to a specific herbicide proved to be a success because the herbicide eliminated weed competition from the crop plant. Researchers discovered herbicide-resistant bacteria, isolated the genes responsible for the condition, and “shot” them into a crop plant, which then proved to be resistant to that herbicide. Similarly, insect-resistant plants are becoming available as researchers discover bacterial enzymes that destroy or immobilize unwanted herbivores, and others that increase nitrogen fixation in the soil for use by plants.
Geneticists are on the threshold of a major agricultural breakthrough. All plants need nitrogen to grow. In fact, nitrogen is one of the three most important nutrients a plant requires. Although the Atmosphere is approximately 78 percent nitrogen, it is in a form that is unusable to plants. However, a naturally occurring rhizobium bacterium is found in the soil and converts atmospheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants. These nitrogen-fixing bacteria are also found naturally occurring in the legumes of certain plants such as soybeans and peanuts. Because they contain these unusual bacteria, they can grow in nitrogen-deficient soil that prohibits the growth of other crop plants. Researchers hope that by isolating these bacteria, they can identify the DNA segment that codes for nitrogen fixation, remove the segment, and insert it into the DNA of a profitable cash crop! In so doing, the new transgenic crop plants could live in new fringe territories, which are areas normally not suitable for their growth, and grow in current locations without the addition of costly Fertilizers.,
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genes using the methods of molecular biology. It is a powerful tool that has the potential to improve human Health, agriculture, and the environment.
Gene cloning is the process of making multiple copies of a gene. This can be done by inserting the gene into a bacterium, which will then produce many copies of the gene. Gene cloning is used in a variety of applications, including gene therapy, genetic engineering of crops, and the production of pharmaceuticals.
Gene editing is the process of making changes to a gene. This can be done by using a variety of techniques, including the CRISPR-Cas9 system. Gene editing is a powerful tool that can be used to correct genetic defects, improve crop yields, and develop new drugs.
Gene therapy is the process of using genes to treat or prevent disease. This can be done by inserting a healthy gene into a patient’s cells, or by using gene editing to correct a genetic defect. Gene therapy is a promising new treatment for a variety of diseases, including cancer, cystic fibrosis, and sickle cell anemia.
Genetic modification is the process of changing the genetic makeup of an organism. This can be done by inserting genes from one organism into another, or by using gene editing to make changes to an organism’s own genes. Genetic modification is used in a variety of applications, including agriculture, medicine, and research.
Genetic screening is the process of testing for genetic abnormalities. This can be done for a variety of reasons, including to identify people who are at risk for developing a genetic disease, to diagnose a genetic disease, or to determine whether a person is a carrier of a genetic disease. Genetic screening is an important tool for preventing and treating genetic diseases.
Genetic testing is the process of analyzing a person’s genes to determine whether they have a genetic disease or are a carrier of a genetic disease. Genetic testing can be used for a variety of purposes, including to diagnose a genetic disease, to determine whether a person is at risk for developing a genetic disease, or to screen for genetic abnormalities in a fetus. Genetic testing is an important tool for preventing and treating genetic diseases.
Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are organisms that have had their genes modified using genetic engineering techniques. GMOs are used in a variety of applications, including agriculture, medicine, and research. GMOs have been controversial since their introduction, with some people concerned about the potential risks to human health and the environment.
Recombinant DNA technology is the process of combining DNA from two or more different organisms. This technology is used in a variety of applications, including gene cloning, gene therapy, and the production of pharmaceuticals. Recombinant DNA technology is a powerful tool that has the potential to improve human health and the environment.
Transgenic organisms are organisms that have been genetically modified by the introduction of genes from another organism. Transgenic organisms are used in a variety of applications, including agriculture, medicine, and research. Transgenic organisms have been controversial since their introduction, with some people concerned about the potential risks to human health and the environment.
Gene transfer is the process of moving genes from one organism to another. This can be done in a variety of ways, including by using viruses, bacteria, or plasmids. Gene transfer is a powerful tool that can be used to improve human health, agriculture, and the environment.
Gene expression is the process by which a gene is turned into a protein. This process is controlled by a variety of factors, including the gene’s promoter region, the presence of transcription factors, and the availability of RNA polymerase. Gene expression is a complex process that is essential for life.
Gene Regulation is the process by which the expression of genes is controlled. This process is essential for life, as it allows cells to produce the proteins they need at the right time and in the right amount. Gene regulation is controlled by a variety of factors, including the gene’s promoter region, the presence of transcription factors, and the availability of RNA polymerase.
Gene structure is the organization of a gene’s DNA sequence. A gene consists of a coding region, which contains the instructions for making a protein, and a non-coding region, which contains regulatory Elements that control the gene’s expression. Gene structure is important for understanding how genes work and how they can be manipulated.
Gene mapping is the process of determining the location of genes on a chromosome. This information is used to study the inheritance of genetic diseases and to develop new treatments for these diseases. Gene mapping is a complex process that requires the use of a variety of techniques, including DNA sequencing and genetic linkage analysis.
Genome sequencing is the process of determining the sequence of DNA bases in an organism’s genome. This information is used to study the evolution of organisms, to identify genes that are associated with diseases, and to develop new treatments for these diseases. Genome sequencing is a complex and expensive process, but it is becoming increasingly affordable as technology improves.
What is the difference between genetic engineering and gene editing?
Genetic engineering is the process of modifying an organism’s genome using recombinant DNA technology. Gene editing is a type of genetic engineering that involves making specific changes to a gene.
What are the benefits of genetic engineering?
Genetic engineering has the potential to improve the health and well-being of humans and animals, as well as to increase crop yields and reduce the use of pesticides.
What are the risks of genetic engineering?
The risks of genetic engineering include the potential for unintended consequences, such as the creation of new diseases or the development of resistance to antibiotics.
What is the future of genetic engineering?
The future of genetic engineering is uncertain. Some experts believe that it has the potential to solve many of the world’s problems, while others are concerned about the potential risks.
What are some examples of genetic engineering?
Some examples of genetic engineering include the development of genetically modified crops, such as corn and soybeans, and the development of genetically modified animals, such as pigs and cows.
What is the history of genetic engineering?
The history of genetic engineering can be traced back to the early 20th century, when scientists began to study the structure of DNA. In the 1970s, scientists developed the first methods for recombinant DNA technology, which allowed them to insert genes from one organism into another.
What are some ethical issues surrounding genetic engineering?
Some ethical issues surrounding genetic engineering include the potential for creating new diseases, the potential for discrimination based on genetic information, and the potential for creating “designer babies.”
What are some legal issues surrounding genetic engineering?
Some legal issues surrounding genetic engineering include the patenting of genetically modified organisms, the regulation of genetically modified foods, and the liability for harm caused by genetically modified organisms.
What are some social issues surrounding genetic engineering?
Some social issues surrounding genetic engineering include the potential for creating a new class of “genetically superior” individuals, the potential for social unrest due to the unequal distribution of genetic benefits, and the potential for the misuse of genetic information.
Sure, here are some MCQs without mentioning the topic of genetic engineering:
Which of the following is not a type of gene therapy?
(A) Gene transfer
(B) Gene editing
(C) Gene silencing
(D) Gene replacementWhich of the following is a technique used to create genetically modified organisms?
(A) Recombinant DNA technology
(B) Gene cloning
(C) Gene editing
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a potential benefit of genetic engineering?
(A) Increased crop yields
(B) Improved disease resistance
(C) Development of new drugs
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a potential risk of genetic engineering?
(A) The creation of new diseases
(B) The spread of antibiotic resistance
(C) The environmental release of genetically modified organisms
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a type of genetically modified organism?
(A) A genetically modified plant
(B) A genetically modified animal
(C) A genetically modified microorganism
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a country that has approved the commercialization of genetically modified crops?
(A) The United States
(B) Canada
(C) Argentina
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a country that has banned the cultivation of genetically modified crops?
(A) France
(B) Germany
(C) Austria
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a non-governmental organization that opposes the use of genetically modified organisms?
(A) Greenpeace
(B) Friends of the Earth
(C) The Sierra Club
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a government agency that regulates the use of genetically modified organisms in the United States?
(A) The Food and Drug Administration
(B) The Environmental Protection Agency
(C) The Department of Agriculture
(D) All of the aboveWhich of the following is a potential ethical issue associated with the use of genetically modified organisms?
(A) The creation of new forms of life
(B) The potential for harm to human health
(C) The potential for harm to the environment
(D) All of the above