Points to Remember:
- Increased tax burden on peasants
- Commercialization of agriculture
- Land revenue policies
- Climate change and environmental factors
- British administrative policies and lack of famine relief
Introduction:
Colonial India witnessed a significant increase in the frequency and severity of famines from the mid-18th century onwards. While famines were not unknown in pre-colonial India, the colonial period saw a dramatic escalation, resulting in widespread death and suffering. This wasn’t simply a matter of increased population; rather, it was a complex interplay of factors stemming from the British administration’s policies and the inherent vulnerabilities of the Indian agrarian system. Amartya Sen’s work highlights the crucial role of entitlements and market failures in exacerbating famine conditions. This answer will explore the key reasons behind this surge in famines.
Body:
1. Exacerbated Land Revenue Policies: The British introduced various land revenue systems, most notably the Zamindari system and the Ryotwari system. While differing in implementation, both systems often prioritized revenue extraction over the welfare of the peasantry. High and inflexible tax demands, regardless of crop yields or natural calamities, left farmers vulnerable to famine. Poor harvests meant many were unable to pay, leading to landlessness and destitution. The Permanent Settlement in Bengal, for example, while initially intended to stabilize revenue, ultimately led to the concentration of land in the hands of Zamindars who often exploited the peasantry.
2. Commercialization of Agriculture: The British encouraged the production of cash crops like indigo, opium, and cotton for export to Britain. This shift away from subsistence farming reduced food security. Farmers were compelled to cultivate cash crops, neglecting food crops, making them more susceptible to famine when harvests failed. The focus on export-oriented agriculture also meant that the Indian market was often flooded with cheaper imported goods, undercutting local farmers.
3. Inadequate Infrastructure and Relief Measures: The British administration lacked a robust system for famine relief and early warning. The focus on revenue collection often overshadowed the need for proactive measures to mitigate famine. Transportation infrastructure was underdeveloped, hindering the efficient distribution of food grains during times of scarcity. Relief efforts were often slow, inadequate, and poorly organized, leading to widespread mortality.
4. Climate Change and Environmental Factors: While not solely responsible, cyclical droughts and unpredictable monsoons played a significant role in triggering famines. Deforestation and unsustainable agricultural practices, sometimes exacerbated by colonial policies, further degraded the environment and increased vulnerability to drought. The severity of famines was often amplified by these environmental factors.
5. Breakdown of Traditional Support Systems: Pre-colonial India had various traditional coping mechanisms and social safety nets to deal with famines. These included village-level granaries, community-based support systems, and patron-client relationships. The colonial administration, with its focus on individualistic market principles, often undermined these traditional systems, leaving the vulnerable population with little support during crises.
Conclusion:
The surge in famines during colonial India was not a singular event but a consequence of a complex interplay of factors. The British administration’s land revenue policies, the commercialization of agriculture, inadequate infrastructure, and a disregard for traditional support systems all contributed to increased vulnerability to famine. While climate change and environmental factors played a role, the colonial policies significantly exacerbated the impact of these natural events. A more equitable and sustainable agricultural system, coupled with robust famine relief mechanisms and a focus on food security, would have significantly mitigated the devastating impact of these famines. Learning from the past, modern India must prioritize proactive measures to ensure food security and protect its vulnerable populations from the devastating effects of natural disasters and economic shocks, upholding the constitutional values of social justice and equality.