Science And Economics Of Climate Change

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Science and economics of Climate change

Science of Climate Change

The Atmosphere functions as a ‘greenhouse’ and insulates the earth from extremes of temperature. The Greenhouse Effect works in the following manner. Of the incoming short-wave radiation from the sun, one-third is reflected, and the atmosphere, ocean, ice, land, and biota absorb the balance. The surface returns some of the heat to the atmosphere as sensible heat and as evapotranspiration. In addition, the surface reflects energy in the form of long-wave radiation, part of which escapes through ‘the atmospheric window’ and part of which is absorbed by the atmosphere.

The balance between the energy absorbed and emitted as long-wave infra-red radiation can change due to a number of factors, like a change in the output of energy from the sun, slow variations in the earth’s orbit, and the greenhouse effect. The greenhouse effect is the most important effect for survival and is one which humankind has the capacity to change.

Short-wave radiation can pass through the atmosphere, whereas long-wave terrestrial radiation emitted by the warm surface of the earth is partially absorbed by a number of trace gases in the cooler atmosphere above. These trace gases are called greenhouse gases. The main natural GHGs are water vapour, carbon dioxide (CO2 ), methane (CH4 ), nitrous oxide (N2 O), and ozone (O3 ) in the Troposphere and Stratosphere. In the absence of these GHGs, the mean temperature of the earth’s surface would have been about 33o C lower than what it is today. Thus, these gases are essential for maintaining a habitable temperature on earth.

Human activities are increasing the concentration of the naturally existing GHGs and adding new ones like chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs). Increasing anthropogenic GHG emissions and resultant higher concentrations levels are capable of raising the global Average annual mean surface–air temperatures (referred to as global temperatures) through an enhanced greenhouse effect. Other potential indirect impacts of rising temperatures are changes in Precipitation quantity and pattern and in vegetation cover and Soil moisture, increased intensity of tropical storms, as well as a rise in the sea level due to the thermal expansion of water and the melting of polar ice sheets. From the economic and social point of view, the indirect impacts, like changes in precipitation patterns, soil moisture, sea level, and storm frequency and their regional distribution, are important.

The concentrations of GHGs have been increasing since preindustrial times due to human activities. Direct measurements of CO2 started in 1957 at the South Pole and in 1958 at Mauna Loa. Data on CO2 concentrations prior to 1957 have been obtained from air bubbles in ice cores, which provide a direct record of past concentrations well before the Industrial revolution.

CO2 , CH4 , and N2 O all have significant natural and human sources, whereas CFCs are produced only through industrial processes. Water vapour and ozone are two GHGs that have not been included in any study. This is because the concentration of water vapour is determined internally within the climate system, and, in the case of ozone, it is difficult to quantify changes in the concentration of ozone as a result of human activity. Though the changes in atmospheric concentrations of GHGs are well established, with the exception of CFCs, there are major gaps in understanding the flow of these gases between their sources and sinks.

The average annual CO2 emissions from fossil fuels and cement production for 1980 to 1989 are 5.5 ± 0.5 GtC. For 1994, these emissions were 6.1 GtC/year. Uncertainties in estimating CO2 emissions from deforestation and land-use change are large and the IPCC puts a tentative figure as 1.6 ± 1 GtC during 1980s. For CH4 ,there are still many uncertainties. However, an amount of 500 teragrams (Tg) can be deduced from the magnitude of its sinks combined with its rate of accumulation in the atmosphere. Recent methane isotopic studies suggest that 20% of the total CH4 is of fossil origin. Greater uncertainties exist with respect to N2 O and other GHGs. The best estimate for the 1980s of current anthropogenic emissions of N2 O is 3–8 Tg (N)/year.

 

 

The economics of climate change

Abatement of GHGs, particularly CO2 , implies curtailment of energy consumption. Energy is a vital factor of production, and its replacement and/or reduction will entail a shift away from current production methods. If current systems employ efficient production techniques, a change in factor proportions will increase the cost of production, and have an adverse impact on the NATIONAL INCOME. This section briefly summarizes the crucial factors determining the cost of abatement and outlines the present understanding of the cost to the economy of the GHG abatement policies.

A wide variety of models have been developed in both economic and engineering disciplines to assess the costs of GHG abatement policies. The differences in model estimates are wide and a number of factors contribute to these differences. The following sub-sections discuss the two main traditions of modelling – namely, top-down and bottom-up, and their cost estimations; and the potential of the so-called whereand when flexibilities in bringing down the abatement costs.

Empirical evidence suggests that internal diseconomies of scale are likely to lead to increasing marginal costs of response Options. The literature on response options focuses mainly on individual technologies and their cost-effectiveness. Emphasis on engineering aspects and the limited availability of reliable and accepted data on the costs and benefits of response options has resulted in the assessment of options in isolation rather than on the basis of mutual comparison. However, a generic assessment would require a framework that allows for a simultaneous evaluation of technologies or options.

National Action plans on Climate Change

Climate change is one of the most critical global challenges of our times. Recent events have emphatically demonstrated our growing vulnerability to climate change. Climate change impacts will range from affecting agriculture – further endangering Food Security – to sea-level rise and the accelerated erosion of coastal zones, increasing intensity of natural disasters, Species Extinction, and the spread of vector-borne diseases. India released its much-awaited National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) to mitigate and adapt to climate change on June 30, 2008, almost a year after it was announced. The NAPCC runs through 2017 and directs ministries to submit detailed implementation plans to the Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change by December 2008. This ARTICLE briefly reviews the plan and opinion about it from different experts and organizations.

National Solar Mission

The NAPCC aims to promote the development and use of Solar Energy for power generation and other uses, with the ultimate objective of making solar competitive with fossil-based energy options. It also includes the establishment of a solar research center, increased international collaboration on technology development, strengthening of domestic manufacturing capacity, and increased government funding and international support.

National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency

The NAPCC recommends mandating specific energy consumption decreases in large energy-consuming industries, with a system for companies to trade energy-saving certificates, financing for public–private partnerships to reduce energy consumption through demand-side management programs in the municipal, buildings, and agricultural sectors, and energy incentives, including reduced taxes on energy-efficient appliances.

National Mission On Sustainable Habitat

The NAPCC also aims at promoting energy efficiency as a core component of urban planning by extending the existing Energy Conservation Building Code, strengthening the enforcement of automotive fuel economy standards, and using pricing measures to encourage the purchase of efficient vehicles and incentives for the use of public transportation. The NAPCC also emphasizes on Waste Management and recycling.

National Water Mission

The NAPCC sets a goal of a 20% improvement in water use efficiency through pricing and other measures to deal with water scarcity as a result of climate change.

 

National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem

This particular mission sets the goal to prevent melting of the Himalayan Glaciers and to protect Biodiversity-2/”>Biodiversity in the Himalayan region.

Green India Mission

The NAPCC also aims at afforestation of 6 million hectares of degraded forest lands and expanding forest cover from 23 to 33% of India’s territory.

National mission for Sustainable Agriculture

The NAPCC aims to support climate adaptation in agriculture through the development of climate-resilient crops, expansion of weather insurance mechanisms, and agricultural practices.

National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change

To gain a better understanding of climate science, impacts, and challenges, the plan envisions a new Climate Science Research Fund, improved climate modeling, and increased international collaboration. It also encourages private sector initiatives to develop adaptation and mitigation technologies through Venture Capital funds.

 


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Climate change is the long-term alteration of temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. A region might experience lower or higher than average temperatures. Climate change may cause more frequent and severe weather events, such as storms, floods and droughts.

Greenhouse gases are gases that trap heat in the atmosphere. The most important greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. Greenhouse gases are essential to life on Earth because they keep the planet warm enough for Plants to grow. However, human activities are increasing the levels of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is causing the planet to warm.

The greenhouse effect is the process by which greenhouse gases trap heat in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases allow sunlight to pass through the atmosphere and reach the Earth’s surface. The Earth’s surface absorbs the sunlight and re-emits it as heat. Greenhouse gases trap this heat, which warms the atmosphere.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) is a scientific body that was established by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO) in 1988. The IPCC’s mission is to provide the world with a clear scientific view on the current state of knowledge about climate change and its potential environmental and socio-economic impacts.

The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, in 1997. The Kyoto Protocol sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European Community for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The Protocol entered into force in 2005.

The Paris Agreement is an international agreement on climate change that was adopted by 196 parties at COP 21 in Paris, on 12 December 2015. The Paris Agreement’s central aim is to strengthen the global response to the threat of climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. Additionally, the agreement aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.

The economics of climate change is the study of the costs and benefits of climate change and Climate Change Mitigation. The costs of climate change include the costs of adaptation to the impacts of climate change, such as sea level rise and extreme weather events, and the costs of mitigation, such as the costs of reducing greenhouse gas emissions. The benefits of climate change mitigation include the avoided costs of climate change, such as the avoided costs of adaptation and the avoided costs of damage to human Health and the environment.

The costs of climate change are significant. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) estimates that the costs of climate change could be between 0.2% and 2.0% of global GDP per year by the end of the 21st century. The costs of climate change are likely to be higher in developing countries, which are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

The benefits of climate change mitigation are also significant. The IPCC estimates that the benefits of climate change mitigation could be between 0.2% and 2.0% of global GDP per year by the end of the 21st century. The benefits of climate change mitigation are likely to be higher in developing countries, which are more vulnerable to the impacts of climate change.

The challenges of climate change mitigation are significant. The main challenge is to reduce greenhouse gas emissions at a rate that is consistent with the goals of the Paris Agreement. This will require a significant shift in the way that energy is produced and used. Other challenges include the need to adapt to the impacts of climate change, the need to finance climate change mitigation and adaptation, and the need to build international consensus on climate change action.

The opportunities of climate change mitigation are also significant. Climate change mitigation can create jobs, improve Energy Security, and reduce Air Pollution. Climate change mitigation can also lead to technological innovation and economic Growth.

The future of climate change mitigation is uncertain. The success of climate change mitigation will depend on the actions of governments, businesses, and individuals. If we are successful in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, we can avoid the worst impacts of climate change. However, if we fail to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, we will face significant risks to our economy, our environment, and our way of life.

What is climate change?

Climate change is the long-term shifts in temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. A region might experience lower or higher than average temperatures. Climate change may cause more frequent and severe weather events, such as storms, floods and droughts.

What causes climate change?

The main cause of climate change is human activity. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun, which warms the planet. Other human activities that contribute to climate change include deforestation, agriculture and industrial processes.

What are the effects of climate change?

Climate change is already having a significant impact on the planet. The average global temperature has increased by about 1 degree Celsius since the late 19th century. This warming is causing a number of changes, including:

What can we do to stop climate change?

There are a number of things that we can do to stop climate change. These include:

What is the future of climate change?

If we do not take action to stop climate change, the consequences could be catastrophic. The planet could warm by as much as 4 degrees Celsius by the end of the century. This would lead to widespread flooding, droughts, extreme weather events and mass extinctions.

It is still possible to avoid the worst effects of climate change, but we need to act now. We need to reduce our emissions of greenhouse gases and invest in renewable energy sources. We also need to adapt to the changes that are already happening, such as rising sea levels and more extreme weather events.

Climate change is a serious threat to our planet and our way of life. We need to take action now to stop it.

  1. Which of the following is not a greenhouse gas?
    (A) Carbon dioxide
    (B) Methane
    (C) Water vapor
    (D) Oxygen

  2. The main cause of climate change is:
    (A) Human activity
    (B) Volcanic eruptions
    (C) Natural disasters
    (D) The sun

  3. The effects of climate change include:
    (A) Rising sea levels
    (B) More extreme weather events
    (C) Melting glaciers
    (D) All of the above

  4. What is the Kyoto Protocol?
    (A) An international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
    (B) A scientific study on the effects of climate change
    (C) A plan to adapt to the effects of climate change
    (D) A fund to help developing countries deal with the effects of climate change

  5. What is the Paris Agreement?
    (A) An international agreement to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
    (B) A scientific study on the effects of climate change
    (C) A plan to adapt to the effects of climate change
    (D) A fund to help developing countries deal with the effects of climate change

  6. What is the Green New Deal?
    (A) A US government plan to address climate change
    (B) A scientific study on the effects of climate change
    (C) A plan to adapt to the effects of climate change
    (D) A fund to help developing countries deal with the effects of climate change

  7. What is the cost of climate change?
    (A) The economic cost of climate change is estimated to be in the trillions of dollars.
    (B) The social cost of climate change is estimated to be in the trillions of dollars.
    (C) The environmental cost of climate change is estimated to be in the trillions of dollars.
    (D) All of the above.

  8. What are the benefits of addressing climate change?
    (A) Addressing climate change can help to reduce the risk of extreme weather events.
    (B) Addressing climate change can help to protect biodiversity.
    (C) Addressing climate change can help to create jobs in the clean Energy sector.
    (D) All of the above.

  9. What are the challenges of addressing climate change?
    (A) One of the challenges of addressing climate change is that it is a global problem that requires international cooperation.
    (B) Another challenge of addressing climate change is that it is a long-term problem that will require sustained effort over many years.
    (C) A third challenge of addressing climate change is that it is a complex problem with no easy solutions.
    (D) All of the above.

  10. What can you do to help address climate change?
    (A) You can reduce your carbon footprint by making changes to your lifestyle.
    (B) You can support policies that address climate change.
    (C) You can educate others about climate change.
    (D) All of the above.

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