The correct answer is D. amensalism.
Commensalism is a type of interaction in which one species benefits from the interaction while the other species is neither harmed nor benefited. Competition is a type of interaction in which two or more species are competing for the same resources, such as food, water, or shelter. Predation is a type of interaction in which one species, the predator, kills and eats another species, the prey. Amensalism is a type of interaction in which one species is harmed by the presence of another species, while the other species is not affected.
In amensalism, the harmful effects of one species on another are not due to competition for resources, but rather to the production of toxins or other substances that directly harm the other species. For example, some plants produce chemicals that inhibit the growth of other plants nearby. This type of interaction can be harmful to both species, but it is not considered to be a form of competition because the two species are not competing for the same resources.
Here are some examples of amensalism:
- The black walnut tree produces a chemical called juglone, which inhibits the growth of other plants around it.
- Some bacteria produce antibiotics, which kill other bacteria.
- Some plants produce thorns, which deter animals from eating them.
- Some insects produce chemicals that repel other insects.