Medieval History of India Archives

191. Consider the following statements about the Ancient Hindu metal images

Consider the following statements about the Ancient Hindu metal images in India :

1. The Chola period is well known for the aesthetic and technical finesse of its metal sculpture.
2. The iconography and style of Chola metal images were similar to those of their stone counterparts.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

[amp_mcq option1=”1 only” option2=”2 only” option3=”Both 1 and 2″ option4=”Neither 1 nor 2″ correct=”option3″]

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Statement 1 is correct. The Chola period (c. 9th to 13th centuries CE) is widely celebrated as the golden age of bronze casting in South India. The Chola bronzes, particularly the Nataraja sculptures, are renowned globally for their aesthetic beauty, technical perfection using the lost-wax method (cire perdue), and dynamic forms.
Statement 2 is correct. Chola art encompassed both stone and metal sculptures. While each medium has its constraints and possibilities, the iconography (representation of deities, their attributes, postures) and the overall artistic style (facial features, drapery, ornamentation) were largely consistent across stone and metal images within the same period, reflecting the unified artistic tradition of the Chola empire. Differences were mainly in the dynamism possible in bronze casting compared to stone.

Chola bronze sculptures represent a peak in Indian metal art, known for their religious themes and artistic quality.
Iconography provides a framework for representing deities and narratives, guiding artists across different mediums.

The lost-wax technique allowed Chola sculptors to create intricate and complex forms in bronze. Major centres of Chola art included Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholapuram.

192. Who among the following were famous for their metal-casting skills and

Who among the following were famous for their metal-casting skills and used to cast excellent matchlocks during the medieval period ?

[amp_mcq option1=”Marathas” option2=”Rajputs” option3=”Ahoms” option4=”Gonds” correct=”option3″]

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The Ahoms, who ruled in Assam for over 600 years (1228-1826), were known for their strong military organization and technological skills, particularly in metallurgy. They were proficient in manufacturing artillery and firearms, including excellent matchlocks, which were crucial for their defence against invaders, including multiple Mughal invasions. Their capabilities in metal casting and weapon production distinguished them during the medieval period.

The Ahoms successfully resisted numerous attempts by the Mughals to conquer their kingdom, partly due to their effective military technology, including the use of cannons and matchlocks.
Their metal-casting skills were a key technological advantage.

While other groups like Marathas and Rajputs were skilled warriors and utilized firearms, the Ahoms are particularly noted for their indigenous production capabilities in this area.

193. Consider the following statements about the administrative measures of

Consider the following statements about the administrative measures of Shivaji:

1. The scheme of Ashta Pradhan (eight ministers) was completed and announced at the time of Shivaji’s coronation with regulations and duties properly defined.
2. Shivaji introduced Marathi in place of Persian and coined Sanskrit technical terms for administrative purposes.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

[amp_mcq option1=”1 only” option2=”2 only” option3=”Both 1 and 2″ option4=”Neither 1 nor 2″ correct=”option3″]

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Statement 1 is incorrect. The Ashta Pradhan Mandai (Council of Eight Ministers) system was in existence before Shivaji’s formal coronation in 1674. Their roles became more clearly defined and their positions gained greater prestige at the time of the coronation, which formalized Shivaji’s sovereignty, but the scheme itself was not initiated or completed *at* the coronation.
Statement 2 is correct. Shivaji actively promoted the use of Marathi in administration, replacing Persian, which was common under Mughal influence. He also commissioned the compilation of a dictionary, ‘Rajavyavaharakosha’, to replace Persian and Arabic terms with Sanskrit equivalents for administrative purposes.

Shivaji’s administrative system was well-organized, featuring a council of ministers (Ashta Pradhan) and a focus on local language for administration.
The Ashta Pradhan were advisors, not hereditary officers, and were accountable to Shivaji.

The eight ministers in the Ashta Pradhan included the Peshwa (Prime Minister), Amatya/Mazumdar (Finance Minister), Waqianavis (Superintendent), Sumant/Dabir (Foreign Secretary), Sachiv/Surunavis (Home Secretary), Pandit Rao (Ecclesiastical Head), Nyayadhish (Chief Justice), and Senapati (Commander-in-Chief).

194. The Sahajiya Cult, which can be traced back to 10th and 11th centuries

The Sahajiya Cult, which can be traced back to 10th and 11th centuries, is usually associated with :

[amp_mcq option1=”early Bhakti traditions” option2=”a kind of early Sufism” option3=”early Upanishadic philosophy” option4=”Buddhism” correct=”option4″]

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The Sahajiya cult originated from the Sahajayana, a tantric school of Buddhism that developed in Bengal and parts of eastern India around the 8th-11th centuries. It emphasized the attainment of enlightenment through ‘sahaja’ (the natural state) and esoteric practices. Elements of Sahajiya also influenced later Vaishnavism in Bengal (Sahajiya Vaishnavism), but its origins are firmly rooted in tantric Buddhism.

– Sahajayana is considered one of the later stages of Indian Buddhism, evolving from Mahayana and Vajrayana traditions.
– The Sahajiyas emphasized love, sexuality, and the human body as means to liberation, often challenging conventional social norms and religious rituals.
– The Charyapada, a collection of mystical poems composed by Mahasiddhas (great accomplished ones), is a key text of the Sahajiya tradition, dating from this period.

While Sahajiya later influenced some aspects of Bhakti traditions (particularly Vaishnavism in Bengal), its historical origin in the 10th-11th centuries is directly linked to the esoteric Buddhist practices of the time. It is distinct from early Bhakti traditions (which were diverse and geographically widespread), Sufism (an Islamic mystical tradition), and early Upanishadic philosophy (which predates it by over a thousand years).

195. Who was the author of the Gwalior Prashasti of Mihira Bhoja ?

Who was the author of the Gwalior Prashasti of Mihira Bhoja ?

[amp_mcq option1=”Nagabhata” option2=”Vatsaraja” option3=”Baladitya” option4=”Kakkuka” correct=”option4″]

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The Gwalior Prashasti is a famous inscription from the 9th century CE that provides valuable information about the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, particularly the reign of Mihira Bhoja I. The inscription was composed by Kakkuka.

– Mihira Bhoja I was one of the most powerful rulers of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty, ruling in the 9th century.
– Prashastis are eulogistic inscriptions commissioned by rulers to record their achievements and lineage.
– The Gwalior Prashasti describes Mihira Bhoja’s military campaigns and administrative prowess.

Nagabhata and Vatsaraja were earlier rulers of the Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty. Baladitya is known from other contexts but is not credited with composing the Gwalior Prashasti of Mihira Bhoja.

196. Consider the following statements about science in medieval South Indi

Consider the following statements about science in medieval South India :

1. The Katapayadi system of numerals, which was invented by Vararuchi of Kerala, the author of Chandra Vakyas, was used for calculating the position of Moon on any day of the year.
2. Achyuta Pisharati (1550 – 1621) wrote Uparagakriyakrama, a text on eclipses.
3. Ravi Varma of Mahodayapuram set up an observatory and is also said to have inaugurated the Kollam era.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

[amp_mcq option1=”1 and 3 only” option2=”3 only” option3=”1 and 2 only” option4=”1, 2 and 3″ correct=”option3″]

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The correct answer is (D). All three statements are correct with reference to science in medieval South India, particularly concerning the Kerala School of astronomy and mathematics.

Statement 1 is correct: The Katapayadi system, associated with Vararuchi of Kerala (perhaps an early figure or a later one, depending on the specific Vararuchi referred to), was indeed used in astronomical computations, including determining planetary positions, based on mnemonic verses like the Chandra Vakyas. Statement 2 is correct: Achyuta Pisharati (1550-1621) was a key figure in the Kerala School, and *Uparagakriyakrama*, a text on eclipses, is one of his known works. Statement 3 is correct: The inauguration of the Kollam era (825 CE) is traditionally linked to the Chera rulers of Mahodayapuram (modern Kodungallur). While precise details are debated, the era’s origin in this period and region, associated with rulers like Ravi Varma, and the mention of an observatory aligns with the flourishing astronomical tradition in Kerala during the medieval period.

The Kerala School of astronomy and mathematics, which flourished from the 14th to the 17th centuries, made significant contributions to topics like infinite series, calculus, trigonometry, and astronomy, predating similar developments in Europe.

197. Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador of the ruler of Persia, was sent to Calicu

Abdur Razzaq, an ambassador of the ruler of Persia, was sent to Calicut in the fifteenth century. He was greatly impressed by the :

[amp_mcq option1=”Fortifications of Calicut” option2=”Climatic conditions of the coastal town” option3=”High quality spices of the place” option4=”Musical traditions of the place” correct=”option3″]

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The correct answer is C) High quality spices of the place.

Abdur Razzaq, the ambassador from Persia who visited Calicut (Kozhikode) in the 15th century, was primarily impressed by the city’s status as a major international trading port. His account, like those of other contemporary visitors, highlights the bustling trade, the multitude of merchants from various countries, and the quality of goods exchanged. Calicut was renowned globally for its spice trade, particularly pepper, which was a key commodity that attracted merchants from Europe, the Middle East, and other parts of Asia. While he described aspects of the city, the economic vibrancy centered around high-quality spices was the most noteworthy and impressive feature for a foreign visitor interested in trade.

Calicut was the capital of the Zamorins and a prominent port on the Malabar Coast. Its strategic location and abundant production of spices like pepper made it a central hub in the Indian Ocean trade network before the arrival of European powers. Accounts by visitors like Abdur Razzaq and later Vasco da Gama emphasize the significance of spices in the city’s economy and global standing.

198. Which of the following statements about the Vaishnava saint of Assam,

Which of the following statements about the Vaishnava saint of Assam, Shankardeva, is/are correct ?

His teachings are often known as the Bhagavati dharma.
He encouraged the establishment of satras or monasteries and namghars or prayer halls for the transmission of spiritual knowledge.
His major compositions include the Kirtana-ghosha.

Select the correct answer using the code given below :

[amp_mcq option1=”1 and 2 only” option2=”2 and 3 only” option3=”1, 2 and 3″ option4=”3 only” correct=”option3″]

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The correct answer is C) 1, 2 and 3.

All three statements regarding the Vaishnava saint Shankardeva are correct.
1. His teachings are often known as the Bhagavati dharma or Eka Sharana Dharma, emphasizing devotion (Bhakti) to a single God, usually identified with Krishna or Vishnu, drawing heavily from the Bhagavata Purana.
2. He established institutions like satras (monastic centers) and namghars (community prayer halls) which served as vital centers for religious practice, learning, and cultural activities, facilitating the transmission of his spiritual knowledge and movement across Assam.
3. The Kirtana-ghosha is one of the most important and popular literary works of Shankardeva, consisting of hymns and narratives related to Krishna, widely used in devotional practices in the Eka Sharana Dharma tradition.

Shankardeva (1449-1568) was a towering figure in the cultural and religious history of Assam, credited with unifying the Assamese society through his devotional movement. He contributed significantly to Assamese literature, music, drama, and dance, shaping many aspects of Assamese culture.

199. Which of the following statements is/are correct ? Shivaji sent an a

Which of the following statements is/are correct ?

Shivaji sent an ambassador to Bombay to negotiate an agreement with the English.
His chief motive was to secure English aid against the Siddıs of Danda-Rajpuri.
He wanted a supply of grenades, mortars and other ammunition.

Select the correct answer using the code given below :

[amp_mcq option1=”1 only” option2=”1 and 3 only” option3=”2 and 3 only” option4=”1, 2 and 3″ correct=”option4″]

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The correct answer is D) 1, 2 and 3.

All three statements about Shivaji’s interactions with the English are correct.
1. Shivaji did send an ambassador to Bombay (then under English control) to negotiate various matters, including trade and potential military alliances.
2. A significant motive for Shivaji’s negotiations with European powers like the English was to secure support, particularly naval aid and modern weaponry, against his rivals, including the Siddhis of Janjira who controlled a formidable naval force and coastal fort.
3. Shivaji was keen to acquire modern artillery, grenades, mortars, and ammunition from the Europeans to strengthen his army and siege capabilities, which were essential against fortified locations held by the Mughals and the Siddhis. The treaty signed with the English in 1674 after negotiations included clauses for the supply of ammunition.

Shivaji Maharaj was a shrewd diplomat and military strategist who understood the importance of leveraging the presence of European powers for his own objectives against the larger forces of the Mughal Empire and other rivals. His interactions with the English often involved complex negotiations balancing trade interests, military support, and sovereign rights.

200. Consider the following statements with reference to the Nataraj bronze

Consider the following statements with reference to the Nataraj bronze sculpture of Chola period :

1. Shiva is shown balancing himself on his right leg representing tirobhava.
2. Shiva is shown raising his left leg in bhujangatrasita stance, representing kicking away the illusion from the devotee’s mind.
3. The main right hand holds the damaru, Shiva’s favourite musical instrument.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct ?

[amp_mcq option1=”1 only” option2=”2 only” option3=”2 and 3″ option4=”1, 2 and 3″ correct=”option2″]

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Statement 1 is correct. Statements 2 and 3 are incorrect.

1. Shiva’s right leg is placed upon the demon Apasmara (representing ignorance/illusion). The action of suppressing Apasmara with the right foot symbolizes Shiva’s act of *Tirobhava* (concealment or illusion), hiding the ultimate reality from the deluded soul. Balancing on this leg while performing the cosmic dance links the stance to this aspect. Thus, statement 1 is correct.
2. Shiva’s left leg is raised in the dance. This raised foot symbolizes *Anugraha* (grace) and *Moksha* (salvation), the release from the cycle of birth and death achieved through Shiva’s grace. While liberation involves overcoming illusion, describing it as “kicking away the illusion” might not be the standard or most accurate interpretation of the raised leg’s primary symbolism. The stance is indeed bhujangatrasita. Thus, statement 2 is likely incorrect in its interpretation.
3. The Nataraja sculpture features four arms. The *upper* right hand holds the Damaru (drum), symbolizing creation. The *lower* right hand is in the Abhaya Mudra (gesture of fearlessness), symbolizing preservation. The statement says the “main right hand” (implying the lower one) holds the damaru, which is incorrect.

The cosmic dance (Tandava) of Shiva Nataraja represents the five divine acts (Panchakriya): creation (Srishti), preservation (Sthiti), destruction (Samhara), illusion (Tirobhava), and grace (Anugraha). The circle of fire surrounding Shiva represents the cosmic energy or the boundaries of the universe.