Ancient Literature and Litterateur Archives

11. Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems

Which one of the following pairs does not form part of the six systems of Indian Philosophy?

Mimamsa and Vedanta

Nyaya and Vaisheshika

Lokayata and Kapalika

Sankhya and Yoga

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UPSC IAS – 2014

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Lokayata and Kapalika do not form part of the six orthodox (Astika) systems of Indian Philosophy recognized traditionally.

The question requires identification of the components of the traditional six systems of Indian Philosophy (Shad-darshanas).

The six orthodox systems of Indian Philosophy are Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Sankhya, Yoga, Purva Mimamsa (or simply Mimamsa), and Uttara Mimamsa (or Vedanta). Lokayata (also known as Charvaka) is a heterodox (Nastika) materialistic school. Kapalika is a tantric sect of Shaivism.

12. With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consi

With reference to the history of philosophical thought in India, consider the following statements regarding Sankhya school:

1. Sankhya does not accept the theory of rebirth or transmigration of soul.
2. Sankhya holds that it is the self-knowledge that leads to liberation and not any exterior influence or agent.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

1 only

2 only

Both 1 and 2

Neither 1 nor 2

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UPSC IAS – 2013

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Statement 1 is incorrect. The Sankhya school, like almost all mainstream Indian philosophical systems, accepts the concept of rebirth or transmigration of the soul (Purusha). The goal of Sankhya is liberation (kaivalya) from the cycle of birth and death by realizing the distinction between Purusha and Prakriti. Statement 2 is correct. Sankhya is a gnostic system that emphasizes achieving liberation through discriminative knowledge (viveka-jnana) of the true nature of Purusha and its distinction from Prakriti, independent of any external influence or divine grace.

Sankhya is a dualistic philosophy positing two ultimate realities: Purusha (consciousness/self) and Prakriti (matter/nature). It explains creation and evolution as the interaction of these two principles and identifies ignorance of their distinction as the root cause of suffering and bondage. Liberation is achieved through knowledge.

The Sankhya system does not explicitly advocate for belief in God as essential for liberation, making it a unique orthodox school in this regard. Its emphasis on knowledge as the sole means to salvation distinguishes it from systems that rely on devotion (Bhakti) or ritualistic action (Karma). The concept of karma and rebirth are fundamental to understanding the bondage from which Sankhya seeks liberation.

13. Consider the following pairs of texts and their subjects: 1. Tilakmanj

Consider the following pairs of texts and their subjects:
1. Tilakmanjari – Mathematics
2. Nighantu – Medicine
3. Janakiharan – Logic
Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched?

1 only

2 only

1 and 2

2 and 3

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UPSC CAPF – 2024

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The correct option is B.

Let’s examine each pair:
1. Tilakmanjari – Mathematics: Tilakmanjari is a renowned prose romance (katha) written in Sanskrit by Dhanapala in the 11th century CE. It is a work of literature, not mathematics. This pair is incorrectly matched.
2. Nighantu – Medicine: The term ‘Nighantu’ originally referred to collections of Vedic words, essentially vocabularies or glossaries. Over time, the term was applied to lexicons in various fields. A significant branch of later ‘Nighantu’ literature comprises texts dedicated to listing and describing medicinal plants, minerals, animal products, and their properties, which are fundamental to Ayurveda and traditional Indian medicine (materia medica). Examples include Dhanvantari Nighantu, Raja Nighantu, Bhavaprakasha Nighantu. Thus, Nighantu texts are indeed related to medicine. This pair is correctly matched in this sense.
3. Janakiharan – Logic: Janakiharana is a famous Sanskrit epic poem (Mahakavya) attributed to Kumaradasa, believed to be a poet from Sri Lanka (possibly 6th or 7th century CE). It retells the story of the Ramayana, focusing on the abduction of Sita (Janaki). It is a work of poetry/literature, not logic. This pair is incorrectly matched.

Based on the analysis, only the second pair is correctly matched, considering the later development of Nighantu literature focusing on medicinal substances.

Nighantus are classified as lexicons or dictionaries in Sanskrit literature. While the earliest Nighantus were related to Vedic studies, the term evolved to encompass specialized glossaries. The medicinal Nighantus are crucial texts in the history of Indian medical knowledge, providing systematic information about drugs and their uses. The question likely refers to this well-known type of Nighantu.

14. The ancient Indian medical treatise for horses called Ashvashastra is

The ancient Indian medical treatise for horses called Ashvashastra is attributed to which one of the following persons ?

Vagbhatta of the seventh century

The sage Shalihotra

Bhartrihari of the seventh century

Varahamihira of the sixth century

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UPSC CAPF – 2023

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The ancient Indian treatise dealing with the science and treatment of horses, known as Ashvashastra or Ashvayurveda, is traditionally attributed to the sage Shalihotra. Shalihotra is considered a pioneer in veterinary science in ancient India, specifically regarding equine care.

Shalihotra of Shakala is a legendary figure in ancient Indian veterinary medicine, particularly known for his work on horses. While the exact date is debated, he is placed centuries before the other figures listed.

Vagbhatta was a prominent physician known for Ashtanga Hridaya. Bhartrihari was a philosopher and poet known for his work on grammar and poetry. Varahamihira was a renowned astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer. None of these are primarily associated with veterinary medicine for horses; that credit goes to Shalihotra.

15. Which one of the following statements is correct ?

Which one of the following statements is correct ?

Brahmi, used for writing many Ashokan inscriptions, shows local variations.

The system of hieroglyphic writing was developed in ancient Mesopotamia.

The system of cuneiform writing developed around 3rd millennium BCE in Egypt.

An ancient script, Kharoshthi was widely used in the southern part of India.

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UPSC CAPF – 2023

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The statement that Brahmi, used for writing many Ashokan inscriptions, shows local variations is correct. While the basic structure of Brahmi script was similar across the Mauryan Empire, regional differences in letter forms can be observed in inscriptions found in different parts of the subcontinent.

Brahmi script is one of the oldest writing systems used in South Asia, and most modern Indian scripts are derived from it. Ashokan inscriptions are some of the earliest and most widespread examples of Brahmi use. These inscriptions show variations depending on the region, which provides insights into the evolution and regional diversification of the script.

B) Hieroglyphic writing was developed in ancient Egypt, not Mesopotamia. Mesopotamia developed Cuneiform writing.
C) Cuneiform writing developed in Mesopotamia (Sumerians) around the late 4th millennium BCE, not 3rd millennium BCE in Egypt.
D) Kharoshthi script was used primarily in the Gandhara region (northwestern part of the Indian subcontinent and parts of Central Asia) from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE. It was not widely used in the southern part of India, where Brahmi and its derivatives prevailed.

16. Which of the following pairs are correctly matched ? (Inscripti

Which of the following pairs are correctly matched ?

(Inscription/Event)	(Time Period)
1. Prayag Prashasti by Harishena	4th century CE
2. Chinese traveller Fa Xian’s Account	6th century CE
3. Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta	5th century CE
4. Harshacharita of Banabhatta	6th century CE
5. Aihole Prashasti of Ravikirti	7th century CE
6. Kavirajamarga of Amoghavarsha	8th century CE

Select the correct answer using the code given below :

1, 2 and 3 only

2, 3 and 4 only

4, 5 and 6 only

1, 3 and 5 only

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UPSC CAPF – 2023

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Evaluating the time periods:
1. Prayag Prashasti by Harishena: Records the achievements of Samudragupta, who ruled the Gupta Empire in the 4th century CE (c. 335/350 – 380 CE). Correct.
2. Chinese traveller Fa Xian’s Account: Fa Xian visited India during the reign of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya) of the Gupta dynasty, arriving around 399 CE and leaving around 412 CE. This is late 4th to early 5th century CE, not 6th century CE. Incorrect.
3. Mudrarakshasa of Vishakhadatta: This Sanskrit play dealing with the rise of Chandragupta Maurya is generally dated to the Gupta period, often placed in the 4th or 5th century CE. 5th century CE is a plausible date. Correct.
4. Harshacharita of Banabhatta: Banabhatta was the court poet of King Harsha of the Pushyabhuti dynasty, who reigned from c. 606 to 647 CE. The work describes Harsha’s life and times in the 7th century CE, not 6th century CE. Incorrect.
5. Aihole Prashasti of Ravikirti: This inscription, composed by Ravikirti, describes the achievements of Chalukya king Pulakeshin II, including his victory over Harsha. Pulakeshin II reigned from c. 610 to 642 CE. The inscription belongs to the 7th century CE. Correct.
6. Kavirajamarga of Amoghavarsha: This is the earliest surviving literary work in Kannada and is attributed to the Rashtrakuta king Amoghavarsha I, who reigned from c. 814 to 878 CE. This is the 9th century CE, not 8th century CE. Incorrect.

The correctly matched pairs are 1, 3, and 5.

Matching historical sources, inscriptions, and literary works to their approximate time periods is crucial for understanding ancient Indian history. Key figures like Samudragupta, Chandragupta II, Harsha, and Pulakeshin II are associated with specific centuries, and the works about them or from their reigns reflect those periods.

Fa Xian’s account provides valuable information about India during the Gupta period, focusing on Buddhism and social conditions. The Aihole inscription is important for establishing the synchronicity between Harsha and Pulakeshin II. Kavirajamarga marks a significant point in the history of Kannada literature.

17. Which one of the following books was authored by Harshavardhana?

Which one of the following books was authored by Harshavardhana?

Harshacharita

Kadambari

Ratnavali

Gitagovinda

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UPSC CAPF – 2022

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The book authored by Harshavardhana among the given options is Ratnavali.

Harshavardhana, the Pushyabhuti dynasty ruler, is credited with authoring three Sanskrit plays: Ratnavali, Nagananda, and Priyadarshika.

Harshacharita and Kadambari were authored by Banabhatta, who was Harshavardhana’s court poet. Gitagovinda was composed by Jayadeva in the 12th century.

18. Which one of the following pairs of authors and Sanskrit literary work

Which one of the following pairs of authors and Sanskrit literary works is not correctly matched?

Somadeva : Kathasaritsagara

Ashvaghosa : Buddhacharita

Bilhana : Vikramankadevacharita

Kalidasa : Vasavadatta

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The pair Kalidasa : Vasavadatta is not correctly matched. Vasavadatta is a famous Sanskrit romance written by Subandhu (around 6th-7th century CE). Kalidasa was a renowned Sanskrit poet and playwright, generally dated earlier (around 4th-5th century CE), known for works like Abhijnanasakuntalam, Meghaduta, Raghuvamsa, etc.

– Somadeva was an 11th-century CE Kashmiri writer known for Kathasaritsagara (“Ocean of the Streams of Stories”), a large collection of Indian legends, fairy tales, and folk tales.
– Ashvaghosa was a Buddhist philosopher, poet, and playwright of the 1st-2nd century CE. Buddhacharita (“Acts of the Buddha”) is his epic poem recounting the life of Gautama Buddha.
– Bilhana was an 11th-century CE Kashmiri poet. Vikramankadevacharita is his epic poem celebrating the life and achievements of the Chalukya king Vikramaditya VI.
– Kalidasa is widely regarded as the greatest poet and dramatist in the Sanskrit language of India.

The Vasavadatta by Subandhu is known for its complex prose style and elaborate wordplay. The story revolves around the romance between Prince Kandarpaketu and Princess Vasavadatta.

19. Who among the following is the author of the Kiratarjuniya?

Who among the following is the author of the Kiratarjuniya?

Magha

Bharavi

Bhasa

Bhavabhuti

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UPSC CAPF – 2020

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The Kiratarjuniya is a celebrated work of classical Sanskrit poetry (maha-kavya). It was written by Bharavi in the 6th century CE. The epic poem narrates the battle between Arjuna (disguised as a hunter) and Shiva (disguised as a Kirata or mountain-dweller).

Bharavi is known for his complex and ornate style, particularly his mastery of language and metre. The Kiratarjuniya is considered one of the great Sanskrit epics, alongside Kalidasa’s works and Magha’s Shishupala Vadha.

Magha was another prominent Sanskrit poet, author of Shishupala Vadha. Bhasa was an early Sanskrit playwright. Bhavabhuti was a Sanskrit playwright of the 8th century, known for plays like Uttararamacharita. These are all significant figures in Sanskrit literature, but Kiratarjuniya is definitively attributed to Bharavi.

20. The earliest literary references to iron in the Indian Sub-Continent a

The earliest literary references to iron in the Indian Sub-Continent are found in the :

Rigveda

Samaveda

Yajurveda

Vinaya Pitaka

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UPSC CAPF – 2016

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The correct answer is C. The earliest literary references to iron (referred to as Shyama ayas or Krishna ayas) in the Indian Subcontinent are found in the later Vedic texts, including the Yajurveda, Atharvaveda, and Brahmanas.

– The Rigveda, the oldest Vedic text, primarily mentions ‘ayas’, which is generally interpreted as copper or bronze.
– Later Vedic texts, composed after the Rigveda (c. 1000 BCE onwards), show clear knowledge and use of iron. The term ‘Shyama ayas’ or ‘Krishna ayas’ (black metal) is used to distinguish it from ‘lohita ayas’ (red metal, i.e., copper/bronze).
– The Yajurveda is one of the principal later Vedic texts where such references appear.
– The Samaveda is primarily a collection of hymns meant for chanting and does not contain as much material on material culture as the Yajurveda or Atharvaveda.
– The Vinaya Pitaka is part of the Buddhist canon (Pali Canon) and belongs to a later period (post-6th century BCE) compared to the Vedic texts.

The archaeological evidence for the use of iron in India corresponds with the period of the later Vedic texts, around 1000 BCE, particularly in regions like Gandhara and subsequently spreading to the Gangetic plain, coinciding with the Painted Grey Ware (PGW) culture. The introduction and spread of iron technology significantly impacted agriculture, warfare, and settlement patterns in ancient India.