The correct answer is: d) All of the above.
Out-migration of working-age people can lead to labor shortages in all sectors of the economy, including agriculture, construction, and small-scale industries. This is because these sectors rely on a large number of workers to operate, and when workers leave these sectors, it can be difficult to find replacements.
In agriculture, out-migration can lead to a shortage of workers to harvest crops and tend to livestock. This can reduce the amount of food that is produced, and it can also lead to higher prices for food.
In construction, out-migration can lead to a shortage of workers to build and maintain infrastructure. This can delay or prevent the construction of new roads, bridges, and other projects.
In small-scale industries, out-migration can lead to a shortage of workers to produce goods and services. This can reduce the supply of goods and services, and it can also lead to higher prices for these goods and services.
Out-migration can also have a number of other negative consequences, such as a decline in tax revenue, an increase in social welfare costs, and a brain drain.