&<–2/”>a >nbsp;

• An increase in the Average temperature of Earth’s near surface air and Oceans since the mid-20^thcentury
• 4^thassessment report of IPCC: global temperature increased 74+18 degree C during the 20^thcentury.
• Caused by greenhouse gases
  • Water vapour, Co2, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Ozone, CFCs (in order of abundance)
• Since the Industrial revolution, the burning of fossil fuels has increased the levels of Co2 in the Atmosphere from 280 ppm to 390 ppm.

IPCC

• 1988 by World Meteorological Organisation and UNEP
• tasked with reviewing and assessing the most recent scientific, technical and socio-economic information produced worldwide relevant to the understanding of Climate change
• Nobel Prize in 2007
• The IPCC does not carry out its own original research, nor does it do the work of monitoring climate or related phenomena itself.
• A main activity of the IPCC is publishing special reports on topics relevant to the implementation of the (UNFCCC)
• Till now, it has released four assessment reports (1990, 1995, 2001, 2007)
• Fifth assessment report is due in 2014

UNFCCC

1992 at the Rio Summit.

194 members. Secretariat at Bonn.

Parties to UNFCCC are classified as:

• Annex I countries – industrialized countries and economies in transition
• Annex II countries – developed countries which pay for costs of developing countries
• Developing countries.

 

Conference	Place	Outcome
1995 COP1	Berlin	The Berlin Mandate
1996 COP2	Geneva
1997 COP3	Kyoto	Kyoto Protocol
1998 COP4	Buenos Aires
1999 COP5	Bonn
2000 COP6 /2001 COP6	The Hague/Bonn	CDM and Joint Implementation adopted at Bonn
2001 COP7	Marrakesh
2002 COP8	New Delhi	Delhi Declaration: Calls for efforts by developed countries to transfer technology and minimize the impact of Climate Change on developing countries
2003 COP9	Milan
2004 COP10	Buenos Aires
2005 COP11/MOP1	Montreal
2006 COP12/MOP2	Nairobi
2007 COP13/MOP3	Bali	Bali Action Plan
2008 COP14/MOP4	Poznan, Poland
2009 COP15/MOP5	Copenhagen
2010 COP16/MOP6	Cancun
2011 COP17/MOP7	Durban, South Africa

 

Tarawa Climate Change Conference

• In the lead up to COP16, the leaders of the world’s most climate-change vulnerable countries met in Kiribati in November 2010
• Ambo Declarationwas adopted
  • It calls for more and immediate action to be undertaken to address the causes and adverse impacts of climate change.

CoP-16/CMP-6, Cancun

COP-16 President: Patricia Espinosa, Mexico’s foreign secretary

COP-17 will be held in Durban

Issues

• Forestry issues and reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (Redd) plus
• The developed countries are pushing for transparency from countries where they will fund Climate Change Mitigation.
  • The assessment of Carbon Emission mitigation for developing countries is right now through domestic Communication but is subject to international consultation and analysis. This push for transparency is a major contentious issue.
• Fast-track finance: $ 30 bn had been committed at CoP-15. A large part of this funding is yet to come through.

 

Goals

Agreements Reached

• The outcome of the summit was an agreement, not a binding treaty, which calls on rich countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions as pledged in the Copenhagen Accord, and for developing countries to plan to reduce their emissions, to limit Global Warming to less than 2 degrees celsius above pre-industrial levels.
• There should be no gap between the first commitment period of the Kyoto Protocol, which expires in December 2012, and the second phase.
• The agreement calls on the developed countries to “raise the level of ambition of the emission reductions to be achieved by them individually or jointly, with a view to reducing their aggregate level of emission of Green House Gases”
• Allows flexibility in choosing the Base Year for setting emission reduction targets
• Emissions trading and the project based mechanism under the KP shall continue to be available to Annex 1 parties as a means to meet their quantified emission limitation and reduction objectives.
• The agreements recognize that in all climate change related action,Human Rights must be respected. They also recognise the need to engage with a broad range of stakeholders, including youth and persons with disability, and call for Equality/”>Gender Equality and effective participation of Women and indigenous people in effective action on all aspects of climate change.
• The BASIC group softened the three demands it had before the talks began
  • Necessity of a second commitment period to the Kyoto Protocol
  • Need to accelerate disbursement under the fast start finance in the form of new and additional Resources through a multilaterally supervised mechanism
  • Continued dialogue on IPRs as part of the technology development and transfer issues.
• REDDis a part of the package and proposed mitigation actions include conservation and enhancement of forest carbon stocks and sustainable management of forests.
  • REDD is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce GHGs but it can deliver ‘co-benefits’ such as Biodiversity-2/”>Biodiversity conservation and POVERTY alleviation
  • REDD+ calls for activities with serious implication directed towards the local communities, indigenous people and forests which relate to reducing emission from deforestation and forest degradation. It goes beyond deforestation and forest degradation and includes the role of conservation, sustainable management of forests and enhancement of forest carbon stocks
• ACancun Adaptation Framework has been proposed to strengthen and address implementation of action, and various kinds of assessments, apart from R&D and host of other issues.
• Green Climate FundThe fund will be designed by a transitional committee, with 15 members from the developed countries and 25 from the developing nations.
• Pledge by the developed countries to provide $100 bn annually till 2020.

 

Conclusion

• UNFCCC secretary-generalChristian Figueres emphasised that the main achievement of the Cancun meet has been to restore some degree of faith in the multilateral process.
• The agreements don’t mention any reduction targets.
• Though the agreements recognize the need to reduce the GHG emissions and curb the increase in global average temperatures below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, in the absence of any firm target, this could be an inadequate and vague provision
• Bolivia has rejected the agreement, saying that it won’t support agreement without binding emission cuts.
• In a sense, the summit was both a major step forward as well as a failure
• It was a step forward because in recent years climate change negotiations had stumbled and this meeting helped overcome that
• It was a failure because it failed to reach an agreement for binding restrictions that are required to avert global warming.
• There was no agreement on how to extend the Kyoto Protocol, or how the $100 billion a year for the Green Climate Fund will be raised or whether developing countries should have binding emissions reductions.

Convention on Biodiversity

• Opened for signature at the Earth Summit in 1992 and entered into force on December 29, 1993
• There are 193 parties. Its secretariat is based in Montreal, Canada.
• US has signed but not ratified the treaty.
• It is an internationallegally-binding treaty with three main goals:
  • conservationof biodiversity
  • sustainable useof biodiversity
  • fair and equitable sharingof the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources
• Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to sustainable future
• CBD covers biodiversityat all levels: Ecosystems, species and genetic resources
• It also covers Biotechnology through theCartagena Protocol on Biosafety
• Its governing body is the Conference of Parties (COP). They meet every two years
• TheEcosystem Approach, an integrated strategy for the management of resources, is the framework for action under the Convention
• Precautionary principle: it states that where there is threat of significant reduction or loss of biological diversity, lack of full scientific certainty should not be used as a reason for postponing measures to avoid or minimize such threat.
• 2010 is the International Year of Biodiversity.

COP-10 of CBD

• Held at Nagoya, Japan in October 2010.
• It achieved three inter-linked goals
  • Adoption of a new ten year strategic plan to save biodiversity
  • Resource mobilization strategy to increase official development assistance for biodiversity
  • A new international protocol on access to and sharing the benefits from the use of the genetic resources of the planet (Nagoya Protocol)
• Japan Biodiversity Fund was established
• COP-11 will take place in 2012 in India

Nagoya Protocol

• Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from Their Utilization
• The protocol creates a framework that balances access to genetic resources on the basis ofprior informed Consent and mutually agreed terms with a fair and equitable sharing
• Expected to enter into force in 2012
• The Strategic Plan of CBD, which aims to arrest biodiversity loss throughout the world by 2020, will be called the Aichi Target. <Aichi is the prefecture in which Nagoya is situated>

Aichi Target

• The Strategic Plan of the CBD or the ‘Aichi Target’ adopted by the meeting include 20 headline targets, organised under five strategic goals that address the underlying causes of biodiversity loss, reduce the pressures on biodiversity, safeguard biodiversity at all levels, enhance the benefits provided by biodiversity, and provide for capacity building.
• The Aichi target will be the overarching framework on biodiversity not only for the biodiversity-related conventions, but for the entire UN system.
• Some targets
  • 17 pc inland and 10 pc marine ecosystem
  • Conserving coral reefs
  • Restore 15 pc of degraded areas
  • Halve or bring to zero the rate of loss of natural habitats including forests
• Target is that by 2020, at least 17 pc of terrestrial and inland water, and 10 pc of coastal and marine areas, especially areas of particular importance for biodiversity and ecosystem are conserved
• The conservation is to be done through effectively and equitably managed, ecologically representative and well connected systemsof Protected Areas and other effective area-based conservation measures, and integrated into the wider landscapes and seascapes.

 

Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol has put in place three flexibility mechanisms to reduce emission of Green House Gases. Although the Protocol places maximum responsibility of reducing emissions on the developed countries by committing them to specific emission targets, the three mechanisms are based on the premise that reduction of emissions in any part of the globe will have the same desired effect on the atmosphere, and also that some developed countries might find it easier and more cost effective to support emissions reductions in other developed or dev

developing countries rather than at home. These mechanisms thus provide flexibility to the Annexure I countries, helping them to meet their emission reduction obligations. Let us take a look at what these mechanisms are.

What are the three flexibility mechanisms put in place of the Kyoto Protocol for reducing GHG emission?

• The three mechanisms are joint implementation. Emissions Trading and Clean Development

What is Joint Implementation?

• Through the Joint Implementation, any Annex I country can invest in emission reduction projects (referred to as joint Implementation Project) in any other Annex I country as an alternative to reducing emissions domestically.
• Two early examples are change from a wet to a dry process at a Ukraine cement works, reducing energy consumption by 53 percent by 2008-2012; and rehabilitation of a Bulgarian hydropower project, with a 267,000 ton reduction of C02 equivalent during 2008-2012.

What is Clean Development mechanism?

• The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) allows-‘l developed country with an emission reduction or emission-limitation commitment under the Kyoto Protocol to implement an emission reduction project in developing countries as an alternative to more expensive emission reductions in their own countries. In exchange for the amount of reduction In emission thus achieved, the investing gets carbon credits which it can offset against its Kyoto targets. The developing country gains a Step towards Sustainable Development.
• To get a CDM project registered and implemented, the investing country’ has to first take approval from the designated national authority in the host country, establish “Additionally”, define baselines and get the project validated by a third party agency, called a Designated Operational Entity (DOE).The Executive Body of CDM registers the project and issues credits, called Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), or carbon credits, where each unit is equivalent to the reduction of one metric tonne of. C02 or its equivalent. There are more than 4200 CDM projects in the pipeline as on 14.3.2010. The expected CERs till the end of2012 is 2,900,000,000

What is “Additionality” in a CDM project ?

• The feature of “additionality” is a crucial element of a CDM project it means that the industrialized country that is seeking to establish the CDM project in the developing country and earns carbon credits from it has to establish that the planned carbon reductions would not have occurred on its own, in the absence of the CDM project. They have to establish a baseline of the project. Which is the emission level that would have been there in the absence of the project. The difference between this baseline level and the (lower) emission level achieved as a result of the project is the Carbon Credit due to the investing country

What are some of the concerns regarding CDM ?

• The risk of “false Credits” is a cause for concern with regard to CDM projects. If a project does not actually offer an additionally and the reduction in emission would have happened anyway Even without the project.

CoP15 (Copenhagen Summit)

• Main aim was to establish a global climate agreement for the period from 2012 when the first commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol expires
• The conference did not achieve any binding agreement for long term action
• A ‘political accord’ was negotiated by approximately 25 parties
  • Collective commitment by developed countries for new and additional resources , including forestry and investments through international institutions to a tune of $30 bn for the period 2010-12.
• Copenhagen Accord
  • Not legally binding and does not commit countries to agree to a binding successor to the Kyoto Protocol
  • Annex 1 parties would commit to economy-wide emissions targets for 2020 to be submitted by 31 Jan 2010. Delivery of reductions and finance by developed countries will be measured , reported and verified (MRV) in accordance with COP guidelines
  • Non-annex 1 countries would implement Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Actions to slow their carbon emissions
  • Commits $30 bn for 2010-12
  • Copenhagen Green Climate Fund
  • The accord shall be assessed in 2015

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD)

 

Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD) is a set of steps designed to use market/financial incentives in order to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from deforestation and forest degradation. Its original objective is to reduce green house gases but it can deliver “co-benefits” such as Biodiversity conservation and Poverty Alleviation.

REDD+ is being criticised by indigenous people and activists because it is designed to give more control over indigenous people’s forests to state forest departments, miners, companies etc resulting in violation of rights, loss of livelihoods etc.

REDD is presented as an “offset” scheme of the carbon markets and thus, will produce carbon credits. Forest degradation accounts for 15% of greenhouse gas emissions, about the same as transportation sector. Mitigation cannot be achieved without the inclusion of forests in an international regime. Hence, it is expected to play a crucial role in a future successor agreement to Kyoto Protocol.,

Global warming is the long-term heating of Earth’s climate system observed since the pre-industrial period (between 1850 and 1900) due to human activities, primarily fossil fuel burning, which increases heat-trapping greenhouse gas levels in Earth’s atmosphere. The term is frequently used interchangeably with the term climate change, though the latter refers to both human- and naturally produced warming and the effects it has on our planet. It is most commonly measured as the average increase in Earth’s global surface temperature.

Since the pre-industrial period, human activities are estimated to have increased Earth’s global average temperature by about 1 degree Celsius (1.8 degrees Fahrenheit), a number that is currently increasing by 0.2 degrees Celsius (0.36 degrees Fahrenheit) per decade. Most of the current warming trend is extremely likely (greater than 95 percent Probability) the result of human activity since the 1950s and is proceeding at an unprecedented rate over decades to millennia.

The largest human influence on climate change has been the emission of greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide. The primary source of these emissions is from burning fossil fuels for electricity, heat and transportation. Greenhouse gases act like a blanket around Earth, trapping energy in the atmosphere and causing it to warm.

The impacts of climate change are already being felt around the world, and are expected to become more severe in the future. These impacts include rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, changes in agricultural yields, and loss of biodiversity.

There is a clear scientific consensus that human activity is the main cause of climate change, and that it is a serious threat to the planet. There is also a clear consensus that we need to take action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate the impacts of climate change.

There are a number of things that we can do to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, including:

• Switching to RENEWABLE ENERGY sources such as solar and wind power
• Improving Energy Efficiency
• Reducing our reliance on cars and other fossil-fuel-powered vehicles
• Planting trees

We can also mitigate the impacts of climate change by:

• Building sea walls to protect coastal communities from rising sea levels
• Developing drought-resistant crops
• Relocating people who are at risk from climate change

Climate change is a serious threat, but it is not too late to take action. By reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating the impacts of climate change, we can protect our planet for future generations.

Here are some additional resources on global warming:

• The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC): The IPCC is the leading international body for the assessment of climate change.
• The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC): The UNFCCC is an international treaty that sets out a framework for the global response to climate change.
• The Kyoto Protocol: The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement that sets binding targets for industrialized countries to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions.
• The Paris Agreement: The Paris Agreement is an international agreement that aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and pursue efforts to limit the increase to 1.5 degrees Celsius.

What is climate change?

Climate change is the long-term shifts in temperature and typical weather patterns in a place. Climate change could refer to a particular location or the planet as a whole. Climate change may cause weather patterns to be less predictable. A region might experience lower or higher than average temperatures. Climate change may cause more frequent and severe weather events, such as storms, floods and droughts.

What causes climate change?

The main cause of climate change is human activity. The burning of fossil fuels, such as coal, oil and gas, releases greenhouse gases into the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases trap heat from the sun, which warms the planet. Other human activities that contribute to climate change include deforestation, agriculture and industrial processes.

What are the effects of climate change?

Climate change is already having a significant impact on the planet. The average global temperature has increased by about 1 degree Celsius since the late 19th century. This warming is causing sea levels to rise, Glaciers to melt and extreme weather events to become more common. Climate change is also having a negative impact on human Health, agriculture and ecosystems.

What can be done to address climate change?

There are a number of things that can be done to address climate change. These include reducing greenhouse gas emissions, investing in renewable energy sources and adapting to the impacts of climate change.

What is the Paris Agreement?

The Paris Agreement is an international treaty on climate change. It was adopted by 195 countries in December 2015 and entered into force in November 2016. The Paris Agreement aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The agreement also aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.

What is the role of the United Nations in addressing climate change?

The United Nations plays a leading role in addressing climate change. The UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) is the main international treaty on climate change. The UNFCCC was adopted in 1992 and entered into force in 1994. The UNFCCC has 197 parties, including all of the world’s countries. The UNFCCC’s objective is to stabilize greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system.

The UNFCCC has been supplemented by a number of other agreements, including the Kyoto Protocol and the Paris Agreement. The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 and entered into force in 2005. The Kyoto Protocol is an international treaty that sets binding emission reduction targets for developed countries. The Paris Agreement was adopted in 2015 and entered into force in 2016. The Paris Agreement is an international treaty on climate change. It aims to limit global warming to well below 2 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels and to pursue efforts to limit the temperature increase even further to 1.5 degrees Celsius. The agreement also aims to increase the ability of countries to deal with the impacts of climate change.

The UN also provides a forum for countries to discuss and negotiate climate change policies. The UNFCCC Conference of the Parties (COP) is the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC. The COP meets every year to review progress on climate change and to adopt new policies.

The UN also provides technical and financial assistance to countries to help them address climate change. The UNFCCC Secretariat provides technical assistance to countries on a range of issues, including climate change mitigation, adaptation and finance. The UNFCCC Green Climate Fund is a multilateral fund that provides financial assistance to developing countries to help them address climate change.

1. The Greenhouse Effect is caused by:
   (A) The release of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
   (B) The absorption of sunlight by the Earth’s surface.
   (C) The reflection of sunlight back into space.
   (D) The release of heat from the Earth’s surface.

2. The main greenhouse gases are:
   (A) Carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide.
   (B) Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and methane.
   (C) Water vapor, ozone, and methane.
   (D) Carbon dioxide, ozone, and nitrous oxide.

3. The main sources of greenhouse gas emissions are:
   (A) Burning fossil fuels, deforestation, and agriculture.
   (B) Agriculture, deforestation, and industrial processes.
   (C) Industrial processes, transportation, and electricity generation.
   (D) Transportation, electricity generation, and commercial and residential buildings.

4. The main effects of climate change are:
   (A) Rising sea levels, more extreme weather events, and changes in plant and animal life.
   (B) More extreme weather events, changes in plant and animal life, and changes in human health.
   (C) Changes in plant and animal life, changes in human health, and changes in the global economy.
   (D) Changes in the global economy, changes in human health, and changes in international relations.

5. What can be done to reduce greenhouse gas emissions?
   (A) Switch to renewable energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and reduce deforestation.
   (B) Switch to renewable energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and reduce our reliance on fossil fuels.
   (C) Switch to renewable energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and reduce our consumption of goods and Services.
   (D) Switch to renewable energy sources, improve energy efficiency, and reduce our impact on the Environment.

6. What are the benefits of reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
   (A) Reducing the risk of climate change, improving air quality, and saving Money.
   (B) Reducing the risk of climate change, improving air quality, and creating jobs.
   (C) Reducing the risk of climate change, improving air quality, and protecting our health.
   (D) Reducing the risk of climate change, improving air quality, and protecting our planet.

7. What are the challenges of reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
   (A) The cost of switching to renewable energy sources, the difficulty of improving energy efficiency, and the reluctance of people to change their lifestyles.
   (B) The cost of switching to renewable energy sources, the difficulty of improving energy efficiency, and the need for international cooperation.
   (C) The cost of switching to renewable energy sources, the difficulty of improving energy efficiency, and the need for government intervention.
   (D) The cost of switching to renewable energy sources, the difficulty of improving energy efficiency, and the need for public Education.

8. What is the role of individuals in reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
   (A) Individuals can reduce their emissions by making changes in their own lives, such as driving less, using less energy in their homes, and eating less meat.
   (B) Individuals can reduce their emissions by supporting policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.
   (C) Individuals can reduce their emissions by holding their elected officials accountable for taking action on climate change.
   (D) All of the above.

9. What is the role of businesses in reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
   (A) Businesses can reduce their emissions by investing in renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and reducing their reliance on fossil fuels.
   (B) Businesses can reduce their emissions by supporting policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.
   (C) Businesses can reduce their emissions by holding their employees accountable for taking action on climate change.
   (D) All of the above.

10. What is the role of governments in reducing greenhouse gas emissions?
    (A) Governments can reduce emissions by investing in renewable energy, improving energy efficiency, and regulating greenhouse gas emissions.
    (B) Governments can reduce emissions by supporting policies that promote renewable energy and energy efficiency.
    (C) Governments can reduce emissions by holding their citizens accountable for taking action on climate change.
    (D) All of the above.