<–2/”>a >The reputation and success of governance depends upon the conduct of public functionaries and what the public believe about their conduct. It is therefore of fundamental importance that public functionaries act justly and fairly to all, not only paying lip service to ethical conduct but also ensuring that these are manifestly and undoubtedly seen to be done. It is imperative that all public functionaries upon accepting government EMPLOYMENT recognize that they have a special duty to be open, fair and impartial in their dealings with Society. Personal self-interest should be subordinate to the public good in all circumstances, especially if circumstances arise where the possibility of a conflict of interest may become an ethical dilemma.
Viewing ethics in this Light indicates that people are faced with choices requiring them to make decisions enabling them to lead an ethical life within the context of their relationships with others. This suggests that people can be placed in ethical dilemmas. An ethical dilemma arises from a situation that necessitates a choice between competing sets of principles. Thus an ethical dilemma can be described as a circumstance that requires a choice between competing sets of principles in a given, usually undesirable or perplexing, situation. Conflicts of interest are possibly the most obvious example that could place public sector leaders in an ethical dilemma. Other types of ethical dilemmas in which public servants may find themselves include conflict between: the values of Public Administration; justifications for the institutions; aspects of the Code Of Conduct; personal values and supervisor or governmental directive; professional ethics and supervisor or governmental directive; personal values and professional ethics versus governmental directive; blurred or competing accountabilities; and the dimensions of ethical conduct.
Ethical Dilemmas Faced by Public Servants
Some of the most common ethical dilemmas with which public servants are confronted, revolve around aspects such as:
- administrative discretion
- Corruption
- Nepotism
- administrative secrecy
- information leaks
- public accountability
- policy dilemma
Administrative Discretion
Public officials are not merely executors of public policy. They make decisions pertaining to the lives of people, for example, about taxes, survival and the dismissal of people. In doing so they exercise discretion. The question is then how decisions are to be made to avoid ethical dilemmas.
It is true that within the rules and regulations laid down by legislation and within the prescribed procedures, there is ample opportunity for the public official to use his discretion. When faced with alternatives the choice of the public official poses an ethical problem: the choice may be acceptable to only a small section of society. The problem is that the selection of one path of action from among several alternatives is often made on the basis of personal preference, political or other affiliations, or even personal aggrandizement, thereby disregarding known facts and thus the possibility of rational DECISION MAKING. It could well be that all the prescribed rules, regulations and procedures are adhered to but that the discretionary choice may be viewed as unethical or even corrupt.
Corruption The majority of officials uphold the high standards required by public office and are devoted to promoting the general welfare. The ethical standards of public officials are, however, directly related to society as a whole. If the public accepts that in order to secure an expeditious response from a public official some pecuniary or other incentive is necessary, and the official accepts the incentive, then the standards of ethical conduct of officials and the public are in fact in harmony from the point of view of the public.
Administrative Secrecy
An area which lends itself to the creation of situations and actions which could prove to become major ethical dilemmas is the secret conduct of public business. This is especially so because secrecy can provide an opportunity to cover up unethical conduct. Secrecy is an ally of corruption and corruption is always practiced in secrecy. It is generally accepted that in a Democracy the people have a right to know what the government intends to do and it would be in the interest of the public for the administration of public affairs to be conducted openly.
Nepotism
The practice of nepotism (the appointment of relations and/ or friends to public positions, thereby ignoring the merit principle), may lead to the downgrading of the quality of the Public Service. This disrupts the esprit de corps and trust and resulting in corrupt administration, owing to the ability of a select few to impair control measures on account of their personal relationship with the policy-maker, and by reason of their not being easily dismissed or replaced by others. In other words, those who are appointed with the view that they will conform to the standards and views of their appointing authority could prove to be problematic. The preferential treatment of one individual over another, without taking into account the relative merit of the respective individuals, represents nothing but victimization of an individual or individuals.
Information leaks
Official information is often of such a sensitive nature (for example, pending tax increases, rezoning land, retrenchment of staff) that disclosure of the information can lead to chaos, corrupt practices or, for some individuals, improper monetary gains. Leaking official information at a date prior to the public announcement thereof is a violation of procedural prescriptions and can be an ethical dilemma.
Public Accountability
Since public officials are the implementers of public policies, they ought to be accountable for their official actions to their superiors, the courts and the public. It is nevertheless, possible for them to hide behind prescribed procedures, the cloak of professionalism and even political office-bearers.
Policy dilemmas
Policy makers are often confronted by conflicting responsibilities. They have specific loyalties to their superiors, but also to society. They have freedom to act on behalf and in the interest of others, but they must also answer to others – their superiors and society – for their actions. The official’s obligation to respect the political process may conflict with his view on how the objects of policy making are treated. In other words, the dilemma of the public official is the clash between his view of the public interest and the requirements of law.
Dilemma of the public servant
The potential areas for conflict are not necessary ethical dilemmas in themselves. It is what the public servant does when he is confronted by activities pertaining to these phenomena that could prove to be the ethical dilemma:
- Would he keep silent when he finds that administrative discretion is abused, or that corruption or nepotism are practiced?
- Or should he blow the whistle? 3. Should he actively engage in pressure group activities because he sympathizes with their views?
- Should he actively participate in party politics?
- Or should he endeavor only to promote the public good and uphold the high standards of public office?
Ethical Dilemma Case
Sanjay is a senior public servant who has worked in two State public service departments over a twenty-year period. Prior to this he was employed as a chartered accountant. In the course of performing his duties, involving primarily monetary and BUDGETING issues, sanjay becomes aware that public revenue is being used inappropriately. While he is not directly responsible for this aspect of the budget, he raised his concerns about the channeling of funds from one part of the budget to another to the Head of Division. Sanjay learns that not only is Deepak aware of this practice, but also that he condones it. Not long after, sanjay is summoned to talk to Deepak and to the Director-General about the issue. In preparation for this meeting Deepak prepares a short paper that identifies his understanding of the key issues and presents this to Deepak and the DirectorGeneral. Due to the politically sensitive nature of the issue, sanjay is told that the matter is not within his jurisdiction and therefore he should ‘keep his nose out of it’. This advice is based on the fact that the incumbent government will not tolerate questions about how it puts its budget together but that it also faces electoral defeat if the matter were to be made ‘public’. sanjay and his two supervisors are acutely aware of the tensions between the department, the minister and the government. This unease manifests itself around the advice the department provides the minister with, and the advice that the minister and the government want to hear in particular: After much soul searching, sanjay decides to obey his supervisors by leaving the matter alone.
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Ethical reasoning is the process of making decisions based on what is considered right or wrong. Moral dilemmas are situations in which there is no clear right or wrong answer.
Ethical theories are frameworks for ethical reasoning. There are three main ethical theories: deontology, consequentialism, and virtue ethics.
Deontology is based on the idea that certain actions are always right or wrong, regardless of the consequences. For example, deontologists might argue that it is always wrong to kill, even if killing someone would save the lives of many others.
Consequentialism is based on the idea that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its consequences. For example, consequentialists might argue that it is right to kill someone if doing so would save the lives of many others.
Virtue ethics is based on the idea that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by whether it is consistent with the character of a virtuous person. For example, virtue ethicists might argue that it is wrong to kill, even if doing so would save the lives of many others, because killing is not an act that a virtuous person would do.
Moral dilemmas are situations in which there is no clear right or wrong answer. For example, the trolley problem is a moral dilemma in which you must choose whether to kill one person to save the lives of five people.
There are many ethical issues in business, healthcare, research, the Environment, war, technology, and Social Media. Some of these issues include bribery, corruption, insider trading, euthanasia, assisted suicide, organ donation, human experimentation, animal testing, Climate change, pollution, deforestation, just war theory, torture, genocide, Artificial Intelligence, Genetic engineering, cloning, privacy, hate speech, and fake news.
Ethical reasoning is a complex and challenging process. There is no easy answer to any moral dilemma. However, by understanding the different ethical theories and moral dilemmas, we can better understand the complexities of ethical decision-making.
Deontology
Deontology is an ethical theory that holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its adherence to a rule or rules. Deontological theories typically hold that there are certain actions that are always right or wrong, regardless of the consequences. For example, Immanuel Kant, a deontological philosopher, argued that it is always wrong to lie, even if lying would save someone’s life.
Deontology has been criticized for being too rigid and inflexible. Critics argue that deontological theories do not take into account the complexities of real-world situations. For example, it might be argued that it is sometimes permissible to lie, if lying is the only way to prevent someone from being harmed.
Consequentialism
Consequentialism is an ethical theory that holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by its consequences. Consequentialist theories typically hold that the best action is the one that produces the best consequences. For example, John Stuart Mill, a consequentialist philosopher, argued that the right action is the one that produces the greatest happiness for the greatest number of people.
Consequentialism has been criticized for being too utilitarian. Critics argue that consequentialist theories do not take into account the rights of individuals. For example, it might be argued that it is sometimes wrong to produce the best consequences, if doing so would violate the rights of individuals.
Virtue ethics
Virtue ethics is an ethical theory that holds that the rightness or wrongness of an action is determined by whether it is consistent with the character of a virtuous person. Virtue ethicists typically hold that there are certain virtues, such as courage, Justice, and temperance, that are necessary for a good life.
Virtue ethics has been criticized for being too vague. Critics argue that it is not always clear what constitutes a virtuous action. For example, it might be argued that it is not always clear whether an action is courageous or reckless.
Moral dilemmas
A moral dilemma is a situation in which there is no clear right or wrong answer. Moral dilemmas often involve conflicting values or obligations. For example, the trolley problem is a moral dilemma in which you must choose whether to kill one person to save the lives of five people.
There is no easy way to resolve moral dilemmas. However, by understanding the different ethical theories and moral dilemmas, we can better understand the complexities of ethical decision-making.
What is ethics?
Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with morality and the principles of right and wrong. It is concerned with the study of what is good and bad, and how we should live our lives.
What is morality?
Morality is a system of beliefs about what is right and wrong. It is based on our values and our understanding of what is good and bad.
What is a moral dilemma?
A moral dilemma is a situation where we have to choose between two or more Options, all of which have negative consequences.
What are some examples of ethical dilemmas?
Some examples of ethical dilemmas include:
- Should I tell the truth, even if it hurts someone’s feelings?
- Should I steal food to feed my family?
- Should I report a crime, even if it means getting someone in trouble?
How do we resolve ethical dilemmas?
There is no easy answer to this question. Each ethical dilemma is different, and the best way to resolve it will depend on the specific situation. However, there are some general principles that can help us make difficult decisions.
One important principle is to consider the consequences of our actions. What will happen if we choose one option over another? Will anyone be hurt? Will anyone be helped?
Another important principle is to think about our values. What is important to us? What do we believe in? Our values can help us guide our decisions and make choices that are consistent with who we are.
Finally, it is important to be open to different perspectives. There is often more than one way to look at a situation, and it is important to consider all of the options before making a decision.
What are some common ethical issues?
Some common ethical issues include:
- Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the act of taking someone else’s work and passing it off as your own. It is considered to be a form of cheating and is often punishable by academic penalties.
- Cheating: Cheating is any attempt to gain an unfair advantage in an academic setting. This can include anything from copying someone else’s work to taking unauthorized notes during an exam.
- Bullying: Bullying is any form of aggressive behavior that is repeated over time. It can be physical, verbal, or emotional, and it can have a devastating impact on the victim.
- Sexual harassment: Sexual harassment is any unwelcome sexual advances, requests for sexual favors, or other verbal or physical conduct of a sexual nature. It is a form of discrimination and is illegal in many workplaces.
- Discrimination: Discrimination is the unfair treatment of a person or group of people based on their race, religion, gender, sexual orientation, or other personal characteristics. It is illegal in many countries and can have a serious impact on the lives of those who experience it.
What are some Resources for Learning more about ethics?
There are many resources available for learning more about ethics. Some of these resources include:
- Books: There are many books on ethics, both fiction and non-fiction. Some popular books on ethics include “The Ethics of Ambiguity” by Simone de Beauvoir, “The Prince” by Niccolò Machiavelli, and “The Art of War” by Sun Tzu.
- Articles: There are many articles on ethics available online and in print. Some popular websites for articles on ethics include The New York Times, The Washington Post, and The Guardian.
- Websites: There are many websites dedicated to ethics. Some popular websites for ethics include The Ethics Centre, The Institute for Ethics and Public Policy, and The Hastings Center.
- Courses: There are many courses on ethics available at colleges and universities. These courses can provide students with a deeper understanding of ethical theory and practice.
- Organizations: There are many organizations that promote ethics. Some popular organizations for ethics include The American Society for Bioethics, The Society for Ethics in Science and Technology, and The Association for Practical and Professional Ethics.
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Which of the following is not a type of ethical reasoning?
(A) Deontological reasoning
(B) Teleological reasoning
(C) Virtue ethics
(D) Ethical relativism -
Which of the following is an example of deontological reasoning?
(A) It is wrong to steal because it is against the law.
(B) It is wrong to steal because it will harm others.
(C) It is wrong to steal because it is not the virtuous thing to do.
(D) It is wrong to steal because it is not in my best interests. -
Which of the following is an example of teleological reasoning?
(A) It is wrong to steal because it is against the law.
(B) It is wrong to steal because it will harm others.
(C) It is wrong to steal because it is not the virtuous thing to do.
(D) It is wrong to steal because it will not lead to the best consequences. -
Which of the following is an example of virtue ethics?
(A) It is wrong to steal because it is against the law.
(B) It is wrong to steal because it will harm others.
(C) It is wrong to steal because it is not the virtuous thing to do.
(D) It is wrong to steal because it will not make me a good person. -
Which of the following is an example of ethical relativism?
(A) It is wrong to steal because it is against the law.
(B) It is wrong to steal because it will harm others.
(C) It is wrong to steal because it is not the virtuous thing to do.
(D) It is wrong to steal because it is not considered wrong in my culture. -
Which of the following is a moral dilemma?
(A) You are walking down the street and you see a man drop his wallet. You can either pick it up and return it to him, or you can keep it for yourself.
(B) You are a doctor and you have a patient who is dying. You know that there is a treatment that could save his life, but it is very expensive and your hospital cannot afford it.
(C) You are a police officer and you see a man running away from a bank robbery. You know that he is the robber, but you also know that he has a family and that he is a good person who made a mistake.
(D) You are a soldier and you are ordered to kill an enemy soldier. You know that the enemy soldier is a good person who is just doing his job, but you are also ordered to follow orders. -
Which of the following is the best way to resolve a moral dilemma?
(A) There is no right or wrong answer, so you should just do whatever you feel is best.
(B) You should try to weigh the consequences of each option and choose the option that will lead to the best outcome.
(C) You should consult with a trusted friend or family member for advice.
(D) You should follow your conscience and do what you believe is right, even if it is difficult. -
Which of the following is not a common ethical dilemma?
(A) Should I lie to protect someone’s feelings?
(B) Should I cheat on a test to get a good grade?
(C) Should I steal something that I really want?
(D) Should I help someone who is in need, even if it means putting myself at risk? -
Which of the following is the most important thing to consider when making an ethical decision?
(A) The consequences of your actions
(B) Your own personal beliefs
(C) The law
(D) The expectations of others -
Which of the following is the best way to learn how to make ethical decisions?
(A) Read books and articles about ethics.
(B) Talk to people who have different ethical beliefs than you.
(C) Reflect on your own ethical decisions and learn from your mistakes.
(D) All of the above.