Database

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Data, Data processing, business data processing, data storage, file management system and data base management systems.

Data, Data Processing and management System

Data processing and data management are critical components of business organizations.

DATA PROCESSING

Data processing refers to the process of performing specific operations on a set of data or a database. A database is an organized collection of facts and information, such as records on employees, inventory, customers, and potential customers. As these examples suggest, numerous forms of data processing exist and serve diverse applications in the business setting.

Data processing primarily is performed on information systems, a broad concept that encompasses computer systems and related devices. At its core, an information system consists of input, processing, and output. In addition, an information system provides for feedback from output to input. The input mechanism (such as a keyboard, scanner, microphone, or camera) gathers and captures raw data and can be either manual or automated. Processing, which also can be accomplished manually or automatically, involves transforming the data into useful outputs. This can involve making comparisons, taking alternative actions, and storing data for future use. Output typically takes the form of reports and documents that are used by managers. Feedback is utilized to make necessary adjustments to the input and processing stages of the information system.

The processing stage is where management typically exerts the greatest control over data. It also is the point at which management can derive the most value from data, assuming that powerful processing tools are available to obtain the intended results. The most frequent processing procedures available to management are basic activities such as segregating numbers into relevant groups, aggregating them, taking ratios, plotting, and making tables. The goal of these processing activities is to turn a vast collection of facts into meaningful nuggets of information that can then be used for informed DECISION MAKING, corporate strategy, and other managerial functions.

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DATA AND INFORMATION

Data consist of raw facts, such as customer names and addresses. Information is a collection of facts organized in such a way that it has more value beyond the facts themselves. For example, a database of customer names and purchases might provide information on a company's market demographics, sales trends, and customer loyalty/turnover.

Turning data into information is a process or a set of logically related tasks performed to achieve a defined outcome. This process of defining relationships between various data requires knowledge. Knowledge is the body or rules, guidelines, and procedures used to select, organize, and manipulate data to make it suitable for specific tasks. Consequently, information can be considered data made more useful through the application of knowledge. The collection of data, rules, procedures, and relationships that must be followed are contained in the knowledge base.

CHARACTERISTICS OF VALUABLE INFORMATION.

In order for information to be valuable it must have the following characteristics, as adapted from Ralph M. Stair's book, Principles of Information Systems:

Accurate. Accurate information is free from error.
Complete. Complete information contains all of the important facts.
Economical. Information should be relatively inexpensive to produce.
Flexible. Flexible information can be used for a variety of purposes, not just one.
Reliable. Reliable information is dependable information.
Relevant. Relevant information is important to the decision-maker.
Simple. Information should be simple to find and understand.
Timely. Timely information is readily available when needed.
Verifiable. Verifiable information can be checked to make sure it is accurate.

DATA MANAGEMENT

Data are organized in a hierarchy that begins with the smallest piece of data used by a computer—for purposes of this discussion, a single character such as a letter or number. Characters form fields such as names, telephone numbers, addresses, and purchases. A collection of fields makes up a record. A collection of records is referred to as a file. Integrated and related files make up a database.

An entity is a class of people, objects, or places for which data are stored or collected. Examples include employees and customers. Consequently, data are stored as entities, such as an employee database and a customer database. An attribute is a characteristic of an entity. For example, the name of a customer is an attribute of a customer. A specific value of an attribute is referred to as a data item. That is, data items are found in fields.

The traditional approach to data management consists of maintaining separate data files for each application. For example, an employee file would be maintained for payroll purposes, while an additional employee file might be maintained for newsletter purposes. One or more data files are created for each application. However, duplicated files results in data redundancy. The problem with data redundancy is the possibility that updates are accomplished in one file but not in another, resulting in a lack of data Integrity. Likewise, maintaining separate files is generally inefficient because the work of updating and managing the files is duplicated for each separate file that exists. To overcome potential problems with traditional data management, the database approach was developed.

The database approach is such that multiple business applications access the same database. Consequently, file updates are not required of multiple files. Updates can be accomplished in the common database, thus improving data integrity and eliminating redundancy. The database approach provides the opportunity to share data, as well as information sources. Additional Software is required to implement the database approach to data management. A database management system (DBMS) is needed. A DBMS consists of a group of programs that are used in an interface between a database and the user, or between the database and the application program.

DATA ORGANIZATION.

Data organization is critical to optimal data use. Consequently, it is important to organize data in such a manner as to reflect business operations and practices. As such, careful consideration should be given to content, access, logical structure, and physical organization. Content refers to what data are going to be collected. Access refers to the users that data are provided to when appropriate. Logical structure refers to how the data will be arranged. Physical structure refers to where the data will be located.

One tool that database designers use to show the logical relationships among data is a data model, which is a map or diagram of entities and their relationships. Consequently, data modeling requires a thorough understanding of business practices and what kind of data and information is needed.

DATABASE MODELS.

The structure of the relationships in most databases follows one of three logical database models: hierarchical, Network, and relational.

A hierarchical database model is one in which the data are organized in a top-down or inverted tree-like structure. This type of model is best suited for situations where the logical relationships between data can be properly represented with the one-parent-many-children approach.

A network model is an extension of the hierarchical database model. The network model has an owner-member relationship in which a member may have many owners, in contrast to a one-to-many-relationship.

A relational model describes data using a standard tabular format. All data Elements are placed in two-dimensional tables called relations, which are the equivalent of files. Data inquiries and manipulations can be made via columns or rows given specific criteria.

Network database models tend to offer more flexibility than hierarchical models. However, they are more difficult to develop and use because of relationship complexity. The relational database model offers the most flexibility, and was very popular during the early 2000s.

DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS.

As indicated previously, a database management system (DBMS) is a group of programs used as an interface between a database and an applications program. DBMSs are classified by the type of database model they support. A relational DBMS would follow the relational model, for example. The functions of a DBMS include data storage and retrieval, database modifications, data manipulation, and report generation.

A data definition language (DDL) is a collection of instructions and commands used to define and describe data and data relationships in a particular database. File descriptions, area descriptions, record descriptions, and set descriptions are terms the DDL defines and uses.

A data dictionary also is important to database management. This is a detailed description of the structure and intended content in the database. For example, a data dictionary might specify the maximum number of characters allowed in each type of field and whether the field content can include numbers, letters, or specially formatted content such as dates or currencies. Data dictionaries are used to provide a standard definition of terms and data elements, assist programmers in designing and writing programs, simplify database modifications, reduce data redundancy,increase data reliability, and decrease program development time.

The choice of a particular DBMS typically is a function of several considerations. Economic cost considerations include software acquisition costs, maintenance costs, hardware acquisition costs, database creation and conversion costs, personnel costs, training costs, and operating costs.

Most DBMS vendors are combining their products with text editors and browsers, report generators, listing utilities, Communication software, data entry and display features, and graphical design tools. Consequently, those looking for a total design system have many choices.

DATA Warehousing.

Data warehousing involves taking data from a main computer for analysis without slowing down the main computer. In this manner, data are stored in another database for analyzing trends and new relationships. Consequently, the data warehouse is not the live, active system, but it is updated daily or weekly. For example, Wal-Mart uses a very large database (VLDB) that is 4 trillion bytes (terabytes) in size. Smaller parts of this database could be warehoused for further analysis to avoid slowing down the VLDB.

FUTURE TRENDS and BUSINESS DATA PROCESSING

A private database is compiled from individual consumer or business customer names and addresses maintained by a company for use in its own Marketing efforts. Such a database may have originated as a public database, but typically once the company begins adding or removing information it is considered a private database. By contrast, public databases are those names, addresses, and data that are complied for resale in the list rental market. This is publicly available data (i.e., any business can purchase it on the open market) rather than lists of specific customers or targets.

However, a new trend is combining features of the two approaches. Cooperative databases are compiled by combining privately held response files of participating companies so that costs are shared. Many consider this to be a future trend, such that virtually all catalog marketers, for example, would use cooperative databases.

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) are becoming a growing area of data management. GIS involves the combining demographic, environmental, or other business data with geographic data. This can involve road networks and urban mapping, as well as consumer buying habits and how they relate to the local geography. Output is often presented in a visual data map that facilitates the discovery of new patterns and knowledge.

Customer Resource Management (CRM) is another area where data process and data management is deeply involved. CRM is a set of methodologies and software applications for managing the customer relationship. CRM provides the opportunity for management, salespeople, marketers, and potentially even customers, to see sufficient detail regarding customer activities and contacts. This allows companies to provide other possible products or useful Services, as well as other business Options. Security of this information is of significant concern on both sides of the equation.

File Management System

Also referred to as simply a file system or filesystem. The system that an operating system or program uses to organize and keep track of files. For example, a hierarchical file system is one that uses directories to organize files into a tree structure.

Although the operating system provides its own file management system, one can buy separate file management systems. These systems interact smoothly with the operating system but provide more features, such as improved backup proceduresand stricter file protection.

A database is a collection of data that is organized so that it can be easily accessed, managed, and updated. A database management system (DBMS) is a software application that allows users to create and manage databases.

There are many different types of databases, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. Some common types of databases include relational databases, NoSQL databases, and cloud databases.

Relational databases are the most common type of database. They are organized into tables, which are made up of rows and columns. Each row represents a single record, and each column represents a single attribute of that record. Relational databases are very efficient for storing and retrieving data, and they are relatively easy to use.

NoSQL databases are a newer type of database that is designed to handle large amounts of unstructured data. NoSQL databases are not as well-suited for storing and retrieving structured data as relational databases, but they are much more scalable and flexible.

Cloud databases are databases that are hosted in the cloud. This means that they are not stored on the user’s computer, but rather on a remote server that is managed by a cloud provider. Cloud databases offer a number of advantages, including scalability, reliability, and cost-effectiveness.

Databases are used in a wide variety of applications, including business applications, scientific applications, and web applications. They are essential for storing and managing large amounts of data.

Database administration is the process of managing and maintaining databases. This includes tasks such as creating and configuring databases, backing up and restoring databases, and monitoring database performance.

Database programming is the process of writing code that interacts with databases. This includes tasks such as creating database queries, inserting and updating data, and retrieving data from databases.

Database design is the process of designing databases. This includes tasks such as identifying the data that needs to be stored, determining the relationships between the data, and creating the database schema.

Database modeling is the process of creating a model of a database. This model can be used to understand the structure of the database and to design database queries.

Database normalization is the process of organizing data in a database in a way that minimizes redundancy and improves data integrity.

Database performance tuning is the process of optimizing the performance of a database. This includes tasks such as optimizing the database schema, indexing data, and configuring the database server.

Database security is the process of protecting databases from unauthorized access, use, disclosure, disruption, modification, or destruction.

Database backup and recovery is the process of backing up databases and restoring them in the event of a failure.

Database disaster recovery is the process of recovering from a disaster that has caused the loss of data or the inability to access data.

Database Auditing is the process of monitoring database activity to ensure that it is authorized and complies with regulations.

Database documentation is the process of creating documentation for databases. This documentation can be used to understand the structure of the database, to design database queries, and to troubleshoot problems.

Database testing is the process of testing databases to ensure that they are functioning correctly.

Database maintenance is the process of keeping databases up-to-date and in good working order. This includes tasks such as backing up databases, restoring databases, and performing database maintenance tasks.

Database Migration is the process of moving databases from one system to another. This can be done for a variety of reasons, such as upgrading to a new database system, moving to a new cloud provider, or merging two companies.

Database replication is the process of copying data from one database to another. This can be done for a variety of reasons, such as load balancing, disaster recovery, or data synchronization.

Database federation is the process of combining data from multiple databases into a single view. This can be done for a variety of reasons, such as providing a single view of data for users, or improving the performance of queries.

Database integration is the process of combining data from multiple databases into a single database. This can be done for a variety of reasons, such as improving the performance of queries, or reducing the amount of data that needs to be stored.

Database virtualization is the process of creating a virtual database from a physical database. This can be done for a variety of reasons, such as improving the performance of queries, or reducing the amount of data that needs to be stored.

Database as a service (DBaaS) is a cloud-based service that provides database management capabilities. This can be a good option for businesses that do not have the Resources to manage their own databases.

Database-as-a-platform (DBaP) is a cloud-based service that provides database management capabilities and a platform for developing and deploying applications. This can be a good option for businesses that need to develop and deploy applications that require a database.

Here are some frequently asked questions and short answers about the following topics:

Computer Science
What is computer science?
- Computer science is the study of computation and information. It is a broad field that encompasses theoretical foundations, algorithms and data structures, computer architecture, information systems, and software engineering.
What are the different branches of computer science?
- The different branches of computer science include Artificial Intelligence, computer graphics, computer networking, computer security, database management, information retrieval, and software engineering.
What are some of the most important concepts in computer science?
- Some of the most important concepts in computer science include algorithms, data structures, abstraction, recursion, and object-oriented programming.
What are some of the most common programming languages?
- Some of the most common programming languages include C, C++, Java, Python, and JavaScript.
What are some of the most important jobs in computer science?
- Some of the most important jobs in computer science include software engineer, web developer, data scientist, and computer systems analyst.
Mathematics
What is mathematics?
- Mathematics is the science of numbers, quantities, and shapes. It is a branch of science that deals with the logic of shape, quantity, and arrangement.
What are the different branches of mathematics?
- The different branches of mathematics include arithmetic, algebra, geometry, calculus, and statistics.
What are some of the most important concepts in mathematics?
- Some of the most important concepts in mathematics include numbers, variables, equations, functions, and graphs.
What are some of the most common mathematical symbols?
- Some of the most common mathematical symbols include +, -, *, /, =, <, >, and Ï.
What are some of the most important mathematical equations?
- Some of the most important mathematical equations include the Pythagorean theorem, the quadratic formula, and the equation for the circle.
Physics
What is physics?
- Physics is the study of matter and energy and their interactions. It is a natural science that seeks to understand the fundamental laws of nature.
What are the different branches of physics?
- The different branches of physics include classical mechanics, electromagnetism, Thermodynamics, quantum mechanics, and particle physics.
What are some of the most important concepts in physics?
- Some of the most important concepts in physics include force, motion, energy, momentum, and gravity.
What are some of the most important laws of physics?
- Some of the most important laws of physics include Newton’s laws of motion, the law of conservation of energy, and the law of thermodynamics.
Chemistry
What is chemistry?
- Chemistry is the study of matter and its properties. It is a natural science that seeks to understand the composition, structure, and Properties of matter and how they change.
What are the different branches of chemistry?
- The different branches of chemistry include organic chemistry, inorganic chemistry, physical chemistry, and analytical chemistry.
What are some of the most important concepts in chemistry?
- Some of the most important concepts in chemistry include atoms, Molecules, elements, compounds, and reactions.
What are some of the most important elements in chemistry?
- Some of the most important elements in chemistry include hydrogen, Oxygen, carbon, nitrogen, and sulfur.
Biology
What is biology?
- Biology is the study of life. It is a natural science that seeks to understand the origin, evolution, and diversity of life on Earth.
What are the different branches of biology?
- The different branches of biology include botany, zoology, Microbiology, and molecular biology.
What are some of the most important concepts in biology?
- Some of the most important concepts in biology include cells, Tissues, organs, organisms, and Ecosystems.
What are some of the most important processes in biology?
- Some of the most important processes in biology include Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Reproduction.
Engineering
What is engineering?
- Engineering is the application of science and mathematics to solve practical problems. It is a broad field that encompasses a wide range of disciplines, including civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, and chemical engineering.
What are some of the different types of engineering?
- Some of the different types of engineering include civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, aerospace engineering, and computer engineering.
What are some of the most important concepts in engineering?
- Some of the most important concepts

Which of the following is not a type of database?
(A) Relational database
(B) Hierarchical database
(C) Network database
(D) NoSQL database
Which of the following is not a relational database management system (RDBMS)?
(A) MySQL
(B) Oracle
(C) Microsoft SQL Server
(D) MongoDB
Which of the following is not a feature of a relational database?
(A) Data is stored in tables
(B) Tables are related to each other through foreign keys
(C) Data is accessed using SQL queries
(D) Data is stored in a hierarchical structure
Which of the following is not a benefit of using a relational database?
(A) Data is more organized and easier to manage
(B) Data is more consistent and accurate
(C) Data is more secure
(D) Data is more accessible
Which of the following is not a challenge of using a relational database?
(A) Data can be difficult to model
(B) Data can be difficult to query
(C) Data can be difficult to maintain
(D) Data can be difficult to secure
Which of the following is not a type of NoSQL database?
(A) Key-value store
(B) Document store
(C) Column store
(D) Graph database
Which of the following is not a benefit of using a NoSQL database?
(A) Data is more flexible and scalable
(B) Data is more efficient and performant
(C) Data is more open and interoperable
(D) Data is more secure and compliant
Which of the following is not a challenge of using a NoSQL database?
(A) Data can be difficult to model
(B) Data can be difficult to query
(C) Data can be difficult to maintain
(D) Data can be difficult to secure
Which of the following is not a type of database management system (DBMS)?
(A) Relational database management system (RDBMS)
(B) NoSQL database management system (NoSQL DBMS)
(C) Object-relational database management system (ORDBMS)
(D) Hierarchical database management system (HDBMS)
Which of the following is not a feature of a DBMS?
(A) Data is stored in tables
(B) Tables are related to each other through foreign keys
(C) Data is accessed using SQL queries
(D) Data is stored in a variety of formats
Which of the following is not a benefit of using a DBMS?
(A) Data is more organized and easier to manage
(B) Data is more consistent and accurate
(C) Data is more secure
(D) Data is more accessible
Which of the following is not a challenge of using a DBMS?
(A) Data can be difficult to model
(B) Data can be difficult to query
(C) Data can be difficult to maintain
(D) Data can be difficult to secure
Which of the following is not a type of data model?
(A) Relational data model
(B) Hierarchical data model
(C) Network data model
(D) Object-oriented data model
Which of the following is not a benefit of using a relational data model?
(A) Data is easy to model
(B) Data is easy to query
(C) Data is easy to maintain
(D) Data is easy to secure
Which of the following is not a challenge of using a relational data model?
(A) Data can be difficult to scale
(B) Data can be difficult to query
(C) Data can be difficult to maintain
(D) Data can be difficult to secure
Which of the following is not a type of data storage?
(A) Flat file storage
(B) Relational database storage
(C) NoSQL database storage
(D) Object-oriented database storage
Which of the following is not a benefit of using flat file storage?
(A) Data is easy to store
(B) Data is easy to access
(C) Data is easy to maintain
(D) Data is easy to secure
Which of the following is not a challenge of using flat file storage?
(A) Data can be difficult to scale
(B) Data can be difficult to query
(C) Data can be difficult to maintain
(D) Data can be difficult to secure
Which of the following is not a type of data access?
(A) Direct access
(