<–2/”>a >Philosophes such as Voltaire considered England’s government the most progressive in Europe. England’s ruler was no despot, not even an enlightened one. His power had been limited by law. The Glorious Revolution of 1688 had given England a Monarchy/”>Constitutional monarchy. However, while the English monarch’s power was being limited at home, the power of the English nation was spreading overseas.
Britain and Its American Colonies
When George III became king of Great Britain in 1760, his Atlantic coastal colonies were growing by leaps and bounds. The colonies thrived on trade with the nations of Europe. Along with increasing Population and prosperity, a new sense of identity was growing in the colonists’ minds. Colonists saw themselves less as British and more as Virginians or Pennsylvanians. However, they were still British subjects and were expected to obey British law.
In the 1660s, Parliament had passed trade laws called the Navigation Acts. These laws prevented colonists from selling their most valuable products to any country except Britain. In addition, colonists had to pay high taxes on imported French and Dutch goods. However, colonists found ways to get around these laws. Some merchants smuggled in goods to avoid paying British taxes. Smugglers could sneak in and out of the many small harbours all along the lengthy Atlantic coastline. British customs agents found it difficult to enforce the Navigation Acts. For many years, Britain felt no need to tighten its hold on the colonies. Despite the smuggling, Britain’s mercantilist policies had made colonial trade very profitable. Britain bought American raw materials for low prices and sold manufactured goods to the colonists. And despite British trade restrictions, colonial merchants also thrived. However, after the French and Indian War ended in 1763, Britain toughened its trade laws. These changes sparked growing anger in the colonies.
Americans Win Independence
In 1760, when George III took the throne, most Americans had no thoughts of either revolution or independence. Yet by 1776, many Americans were willing to risk their lives to break free of Britain. During the French and Indian War, Great Britain had run up a huge debt in the war against France. Because American colonists benefited from Britain’s victory, Britain expected the colonists to help pay the costs of the war. In 1765, Parliament passed the Stamp Act. Colonists had to pay a tax to have an official stamp put on wills, deeds, newspapers, and other printed material. American colonists were outraged. They had never paid taxes directly to the British government before. Colonial lawyers argued that the stamp tax violated colonists’ natural rights.
In Britain, citizens consented to taxes through their representatives in Parliament. Because the colonists had no such representatives, Parliament could not tax them. The colonists demonstrated their defiance of this tax with angry protests and a boycott of British manufactured goods. The boycott proved so effective that Parliament gave up and repealed the Stamp Act in 1766.
Growing Hostility Leads to War
Some colonial leaders, such as Boston’s Samuel Adams, favoured independence from Britain. They encouraged conflict with British authorities. At the same time, George III and his ministers made enemies of many moderate colonists by their harsh stands. In 1773, to protest an import tax on tea, Adams organized a raid against three British ships in Boston Harbour. The raiders dumped 342 chests of tea into the water. George III, infuriated by the “Boston Tea Party,” as it was called, ordered the British navy to close the port of Boston. British troops occupied the city. In September 1774, representatives from every colony except Georgia gathered in Philadelphia to form the First Continental Congress. This group protested the treatment of Boston. When the king paid little attention to their complaints, all 13 colonies decided to form the Second Continental Congress to debate their next move. On April 19, 1775, British soldiers and American militiamen exchanged gunfire on the village green in Lexington, Massachusetts. The fighting spread to nearby Concord. When news of the fighting reached the Second Continental Congress, its members voted to raise an army under the command of a Virginian named George Washington. The American Revolution had begun.
Enlightenment Ideas Influence American Colonists
Although a war had begun, the American colonists still debated their attachment to Great Britain. Many colonists wanted to remain part of Britain. A growing number, however, favoured independence. They heard the persuasive arguments of colonial leaders such as Patrick Henry, John Adams, and Benjamin Franklin. These leaders used Enlightenment ideas to justify independence. The colonists had asked for the same political rights as people in Britain, they said, but the king had stubbornly refused. Therefore, the colonists were justified in rebelling against a tyrant who had broken the social contract. In July 1776, the Second Continental Congress issued the Declaration of Independence. This document, written by Thomas Jefferson, was firmly based on the ideas of John Locke and the Enlightenment. The Declaration reflected these ideas in its eloquent argument for natural rights. Since Locke had asserted that people had the right to rebel against an unjust ruler, the Declaration of Independence included a long list of George III’s abuses. The document ended by breaking the ties between the colonies and Britain. The colonies, the Declaration said, “are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown.”
Success for the Colonists
When war was first declared, the odds seemed heavily weighted against the Americans. Washington’s ragtag, poorly trained army faced the well-trained forces of the most powerful country in the world. In the end, however, the Americans won their war for independence. Several reasons explain their success. First, the Americans’ motivation for fighting was much stronger than that of the British, since their army was defending their homeland. Second, the overconfident British generals made several mistakes. Third, time itself was on the side of the Americans. The British could win battle after battle, as they did, and still lose the war. Fighting an overseas war, 3,000 miles from London, was terribly expensive. After a few years, tax-weary British citizens clamoured for peace. Finally, the Americans did not fight alone. Louis XVI of France had little sympathy for the ideals of the American Revolution, but he was eager to weaken France’s rival, Britain. French entry into the war in 1778 was decisive. In 1781, combined forces of about 9,500 Americans and 7,800 French trapped a British army commanded by Lord Cornwallis near Yorktown, Virginia. Unable to escape, Cornwallis surrendered. The Americans were victorious.
Americans Create a Republic
Shortly after declaring their independence, the 13 individual states recognized the need for a national government. As victory became certain, in 1781 all 13 states ratified a constitution. This plan of government was known as the Articles of Confederation. The Articles established the United States as a republic—a government in which citizens rule through elected representatives. To protect their authority, the 13 states created a loose confederation in which they held most of the power. Thus, the Articles of Confederation deliberately created a weak national government. There were no executive or judicial branches. Instead, the Articles established only one body of government, the Congress. Each state, regardless of size, had one vote in Congress. Congress could declare war, enter into treaties, and coin Money. It had no power, however, to collect taxes or regulate trade. Passing new laws was difficult because laws needed the approval of 9 of the 13 states. These limits on the national government soon produced many problems. Although the new national government needed money in order to operate, it could only request contributions from the states. Angry Revolutionary War veterans bitterly complained that Congress still owed them back pay.
The nation’s growing financial problems sparked a violent protest in Massachusetts. Debt-ridden farmers, led by a war veteran named Daniel Shays, demanded that the state lower taxes and issue paper money so that they could repay their debts. When the state refused, the rebels attacked several courthouses. Massachusetts authorities quickly crushed Shays’s Rebellion.
A New Constitution
Concerned leaders such as George Washington and James Madison believed that Shays’s Rebellion underscored the need for a strong national government. In February 1787, Congress approved a Constitutional Convention to revise the Articles of Confederation. The Constitutional Convention held its first session on May 25, 1787. The 55 delegates were experienced statesmen who were familiar with the political theories of Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau. Although the delegates shared basic ideas on government, they sometimes disagreed on how to put them into practice. Using the political ideas of the Enlightenment, the delegates created a new System of Government.
The Federal System
Like Montesquieu, the delegates distrusted a powerful central government controlled by one person or group. They therefore established three separate branches—legislative, executive, and judicial. This provided a built-in system of checks and balances, with each branch checking the actions of the other two. For example, the president received the power to veto legislation passed by Congress. However, the Congress could override a presidential veto with the approval of two-thirds of its members. Although the Constitution created a strong central government, it did not eliminate local governments. Instead, the Constitution set up a federal system in which power was divided between national and state governments. The delegates agreed with Locke and Rousseau that governments draw their authority from the Consent of the governed.
The Bill of Rights
The delegates signed the new Constitution on September 17, 1787. In order to become law, however, the Constitution required approval by conventions in at least 9 of the 13 states. These conventions were marked by sharp debate. Supporters of the Constitution, called the Federalists, argued that the new government would provide a better balance between national and state powers. Their opponents, the Antifederalists, feared that the Constitution gave the central government too much power. They also wanted a bill of rights to protect the rights of individual citizens. In order to gain support, the Federalists promised to add a bill of rights to the Constitution. This promise cleared the way for approval. Congress formally added to the Constitution the ten amendments known as the Bill of Rights. These amendments protected such basic rights as freedom of speech, press, assembly, and religion. Many of these rights had been advocated by Voltaire, Rousseau, and Locke. The Constitution and Bill of Rights marked a turning point in people’s ideas about government. Both documents put Enlightenment ideas into practice. They expressed an optimistic view that reason and reform could prevail and that progress was inevitable. Such optimism swept across the Atlantic. However, the monarchies and the privileged classes didn’t give up power and position easily. As Chapter 23 explains, the struggle to attain the principles of the Enlightenment continued in France.
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The American Revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1765 and 1783 during which colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies rejected the British monarchy and aristocracy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain, and founded the United States of America. The American Revolution was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in American Society, government and thinking.
The American Revolution was the result of a number of factors, including the following:
- Economic factors: The British government imposed a number of taxes on the American colonies, including the Stamp Act, the Townshend Acts, and the Tea Act. These taxes were seen as unfair by the colonists, who believed that they should not be taxed without representation in Parliament.
- Political factors: The British government also passed a number of laws that restricted the political rights of the colonists, including the Intolerable Acts. These laws were seen as a violation of the colonists’ rights as British citizens.
- Intellectual factors: The American Revolution was also influenced by the Enlightenment, a philosophical movement that emphasized the importance of individual rights and liberties. Enlightenment thinkers such as John Locke and Thomas Jefferson argued that all people are born with certain natural rights, including the right to life, Liberty, and property.
The American Revolution began on April 19, 1775, with the Battles of Lexington and Concord. The war ended on September 3, 1783, with the signing of the Treaty of Paris. The American Revolution was a significant event in world history, as it was the first successful war of independence against a European power. The American Revolution also had a profound impact on the development of the United States, as it led to the creation of a new nation based on the principles of liberty and Democracy.
The American Revolution was a long and bloody conflict that claimed the lives of thousands of people. The war was fought on land and sea, and it involved a number of major battles, including the Battle of Bunker Hill, the Battle of Saratoga, and the Battle of Yorktown. The American Revolution was ultimately a victory for the colonists, and it led to the creation of the United States of America.
The American Revolution was a time of great Leadership for the colonists. Some of the most famous leaders of the American Revolution include George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, and John Adams. These men were instrumental in leading the colonists to victory in the war, and they played a major role in the creation of the United States of America.
The American Revolution also produced a number of important documents, including the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution of the United States, and the Bill of Rights. These documents are considered to be some of the most important documents in American history, and they have had a profound impact on the development of the United States.
The American Revolution had a number of significant effects on the world. It was the first successful war of independence against a European power, and it led to the creation of the United States of America. The American Revolution also had a profound impact on the development of democracy and liberty around the world.
The American Revolution was a time of great change and upheaval for the American colonies. The war led to the creation of the United States of America, and it had a profound impact on the development of the country. The American Revolution was a significant event in world history, and it continues to be studied and debated by historians today.
Here are some frequently asked questions and short answers about the American Revolution:
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What was the American Revolution?
The American Revolution was a political upheaval that took place between 1765 and 1783 during which colonists in the Thirteen American Colonies rejected the British monarchy and aristocracy, overthrew the authority of Great Britain, and founded the United States of America. -
What were the causes of the American Revolution?
The American Revolution was caused by a number of factors, including British Taxation, the lack of representation in Parliament, and the colonists’ desire for independence. -
What were the key events of the American Revolution?
The key events of the American Revolution include the Boston Massacre, the Boston Tea Party, the Battles of Lexington and Concord, the Declaration of Independence, the Battle of Saratoga, the Battle of Yorktown, and the Treaty of Paris. -
Who were the key figures in the American Revolution?
The key figures in the American Revolution include George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, and Alexander Hamilton. -
What was the outcome of the American Revolution?
The outcome of the American Revolution was the establishment of the United States of America as an independent nation. -
What were the effects of the American Revolution?
The effects of the American Revolution were far-reaching, both in the United States and around the world. The Revolution inspired other revolutions, such as the French Revolution, and it led to the creation of the United States of America, which would become a major world power. -
What are some of the myths about the American Revolution?
Some of the myths about the American Revolution include the myth that it was a war of independence against British tyranny, the myth that it was a war fought by ordinary people against the elite, and the myth that it was a war fought for freedom and democracy. -
What are some of the lasting legacies of the American Revolution?
Some of the lasting legacies of the American Revolution include the United States of America, the Declaration of Independence, the Constitution, and the Bill of Rights. -
What are some of the challenges facing the United States today?
Some of the challenges facing the United States today include income inequality, political polarization, and Climate change. -
What are some of the opportunities facing the United States today?
Some of the opportunities facing the United States today include the rise of the global middle class, the Growth of the digital economy, and the potential for scientific and technological breakthroughs.
- The American War of Independence was fought between the United States of America and Great Britain from 1775 to 1783. The war ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris, in which Great Britain recognized the independence of the United States.
- The American War of Independence was a major turning point in world history. It was the first successful war of independence against a European power, and it inspired other peoples around the world to fight for their own independence.
- The American War of Independence was a complex conflict with many causes. Some of the most important causes include the following:
- The British government’s attempts to tax the American colonies without their consent
- The American colonists’ desire for greater self-government
- The growing economic and political differences between the American colonies and Great Britain
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The American colonists’ belief that they were being denied their rights as British citizens
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The American War of Independence was fought on land and sea. The most Important Battles of the war were the following:
- The Battle of Lexington and Concord (April 19, 1775)
- The Battle of Bunker Hill (June 17, 1775)
- The Battle of Saratoga (October 17, 1777)
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The Battle of Yorktown (October 19, 1781)
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The American War of Independence was a major turning point in American history. It led to the creation of the United States of America, and it established the principle of self-government for all people.
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The American War of Independence was a costly conflict. Both sides suffered heavy casualties, and the war left the United States with a large national debt.
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The American War of Independence was a successful war. The United States of America emerged from the war as an independent nation.
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The American War of Independence was a popular war. The American people were united in their support for the war effort.
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The American War of Independence was a long war. The war lasted for eight years.
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The American War of Independence was a bloody war. The war claimed the lives of more than 25,000 Americans.
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The American War of Independence was a decisive war. The war resulted in the defeat of Great Britain and the establishment of the United States of America.
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The American War of Independence was a revolutionary war. The war led to the overthrow of British rule in America and the establishment of a new nation based on the principles of liberty and Equality.
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The American War of Independence was a global war. The war involved not only the United States and Great Britain, but also France, Spain, and other European powers.
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The American War of Independence was a ideological war. The war was fought over the principles of liberty and equality, and it had a profound impact on the development of political thought around the world.
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The American War of Independence was a cultural war. The war had a profound impact on American culture, and it helped to shape the American identity.
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The American War of Independence was a social war. The war had a profound impact on American society, and it helped to shape the American social landscape.
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The American War of Independence was an economic war. The war had a profound impact on the American economy, and it helped to shape the American economic landscape.
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The American War of Independence was a technological war. The war saw the introduction of new technologies, such as the rifle, that had a profound impact on the way wars were fought.
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The American War of Independence was a political war. The war had a profound impact on American politics, and it helped to shape the American political landscape.
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The American War of Independence was a military war. The war saw the use of new military tactics, such as the use of guerrilla warfare, that had a profound impact on the way wars were fought.