The Revolt of 1857 gave a severe jolt to the British administration in India and made its re-organization inevitable. The Government of India’s structure and policies underwent significant changes in the decades following the Revolt.
Changes in Administration
By the Act of Parliament of 1858, the power to govern India was transferred from the East India Company to the British Crown. The authority over India, wielded by the Directors of the Company and the Board of Control, was now to be exercised by a Secretary of State for India aided by a Council.
Under the Act, the government was to be carried on as before by the Governor-General who was given the title of Viceroy or Queen’s personal representative. The Act of 1858 provided that the Governor-General would have an Executive Council whose members were to act as heads of different departments and as his official advisers.
The Indian Council Act of 1861 enlarged the Governor’s Council for the purpose of making laws, which was known as the Imperial Legislative Council. The Governor-General was authorized to add to his Executive Council between six and twelve members of whom at least half had to be non-officials who could be Indian or English. The Imperial Council possessed no real powers. In other words, it had no control over the executive. Though non-official Indian members were added to the Council, they were thoroughly unrepresentative of the Indian people or of the growing nationalist opinion.
Provincial Administration
The British had divided India for administrative convenience into provinces, three of which- Bengal. Bombay and Madras- were known as Presidencies. The Presidencies were administered by a Governor and his Executive Council of three, who were appointed by the Crown. The other provinces were administered by Lieutenant Governor and Chief Commissioners appointed by the Governor-General.
After 1883, the administration was strictly centralized. But the extreme centralization proved to be harmful for the Government especially in the field of finance. The first step in the direction of separating central and provincial finances was taken in 1870 by Lord Mayo. The provincial governments were granted fixed sums out of central revenues for the administration of certain Services like police, jails, Education, medical services and roads and were asked to administer them as they wished. In 1877, Lord Lytton transferred, to the provinces, certain other heads of expenditure like Land Revenue, Excise, General Administration and Law and Justice. In 1882, all sources of revenue were divided into three- general, provincial, and those to be divided between the Centre and the provinces.
Local Bodies
Financial difficulties led the Government to further decentralize administration by promoting Local Government through municipalities and district boards. Local bodies like education, Health, sanitation and water supply were transferred to local bodies that would finance them through local taxes. The local bodies consisted of elected non official members, presided over by an elected non-official chairman. However, the local bodies functioned just like departments of the government as the Government retained the right to exercise strict control over the activities of the local bodies.
Changes in the army
The Indian army was carefully re-organised after 1858, most of all to prevent the recurrence of another revolt. Firstly, the domination of the army by its European branch was carefully guaranteed. The proportion of Europeans to Indians in the army was raised. The European troops were kept in key geographical and military positions. The crucial branches of artillery, tanks and armored corps were put exclusively in European hands. The Indians were strictly excluded from the higher posts. Till 1814, no Indian could rise higher than the rank of a subedar. Secondly, the organization of the Indian section of the army was based on the policy of ‘divide and rule’ so as to prevent its chance of uniting again in an anti-British uprising. A new section of army like Punjabis, Gurkhas and Pathans were recruited in large numbers.
Public Services
The Indians were excluded from the Bureaucracy. All positions of power and responsibility in the administration were occupied by the members of the Indian Civil Service who were recruited through an annual competitive examination held in London. But the members of the Indians to join the coveted ranks of the I.C.S were negligible compared with that of the English entrants. The Indians suffered from numerous handicaps. The competitive examination was held in far away London. It was conducted through the medium of the alien English language. It was based on classical Greek and Latin Learning. The maximum age for entry into the Civil Service was gradually reduced from 23 in 1859 to 19 in 1878. In other departments of administration the superior and highly paid posts were likewise reserved for British citizens. Under Indians pressure the different administrative services were gradually Indianised after 1918, but the positions of control and authority were still kept in British hands.
Change in administrative policies
The British attitudes towards India and consequently, their policies in India changed for the worse after the Revolt of 1857. While before 1857 they had tried, however half heartedly and hesitatingly, to modernize India, they now consciously began to follow reactionary policies which were reflected in many fields.
Divide and Rule
After the Revolt of 1857 the British increasingly continued to follow their policy of divide and rule by turning the princes against the people, province against, caste against caste, group against groups and above all, Hindus against Muslims. Immediately after the revolt their suppressed Muslims, confiscated their lands and property on a large scale, and declared Hindus to be their favorite. After 1870, this policy was reversed and an attempt was made to turn Muslims against the nationalist movement. The Government cleverly used the attraction government service to create a split between the educated Hindus and Muslims. The Government promised official favor on a communal basis in return for loyalty and so played the educated Muslims against the educated Hindus.
Government attitudes towards educated Indians
The official used to favor the educated Indians before 1857 but their attitudes changed after the Revolt because some of them have began to use their recently acquired modern knowledge to analyse the imperialistic character of British rule and to put forward demands for Indian participation in administration. The officials became hostile to the educated Indians when the latter began to organise a nationalist movement among the people and founded the Indian National Congress.
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The Indian Councils Act of 1861 was the first major piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament after the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The Act created a new system of legislative councils in India, with members appointed by the British government. The councils were given limited powers to discuss and pass laws, but they had no real control over the government of India.
The Indian Councils Act of 1892 was a major revision of the 1861 Act. The Act increased the number of elected members in the legislative councils and gave them more power to debate and amend legislation. The Act also created a new body, the Imperial Legislative Council, which had the power to pass laws for all of India.
The Indian Councils Act of 1909, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, was another major revision of the 1861 Act. The Act increased the number of elected members in the legislative councils and gave them even more power to debate and amend legislation. The Act also created separate electorates for Muslims and Hindus, which gave them a greater say in the government of India.
The Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms, also known as the Dyarchy, were a major change in the way that India was governed. The reforms introduced a system of dual government, with British officials responsible for certain matters, such as defense and foreign affairs, and Indian ministers responsible for other matters, such as education and health. The reforms also increased the number of elected members in the legislative councils and gave them more power to control the government of India.
The Government of India Act of 1935 was the most comprehensive piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament on the government of India. The Act created a federal System of Government for India, with a central government and provincial governments. The Act also introduced a system of Responsible Government, with the provincial governments being responsible to elected legislatures.
The Indian Independence Act of 1947 was the final piece of legislation passed by the British Parliament on the government of India. The Act granted independence to India and Pakistan, and divided the country into two separate dominions. The Act also provided for the transfer of power from the British to the Indian and Pakistani governments.
The administrative changes that took place in India after 1858 were a result of the Indian Rebellion of 1857. The rebellion led to the British government taking direct control of India from the East India Company. The British government passed a series of laws that increased the number of elected members in the legislative councils and gave them more power to control the government of India. The reforms also introduced a system of responsible government, with the provincial governments being responsible to elected legislatures. The Indian Independence Act of 1947 granted independence to India and Pakistan, and divided the country into two separate dominions.
What is the history of India?
India is a country in South Asia. It is the second-most populous country in the world, with over 1.3 billion people. India is a land of ancient civilizations, and its history can be traced back to the Indus Valley Civilization, which flourished from around 2600 to 1900 BCE.
India was ruled by a number of different dynasties over the centuries, including the Mauryan Empire, The Gupta Empire, and the Mughal Empire. In the 18th century, India was conquered by the British East India Company, and it became a British colony in the 19th century.
India gained independence from Britain in 1947, and it has been a republic since 1950. India is a member of the United Nations, the Commonwealth of Nations, and the Non-Aligned Movement.
What are the major religions in India?
The major religions in India are Hinduism-2/”>Hinduism, Islam, Christianity, Sikhism, and Buddhism-2/”>Buddhism. Hinduism is the oldest religion in the world, and it is the majority Religion in India. Islam is the second-largest religion in India, and it is followed by a significant minority of the Population. Christianity is the third-largest religion in India, and it is followed by a small minority of the population. Sikhism is the fourth-largest religion in India, and it is followed by a small minority of the population. Buddhism is the fifth-largest religion in India, and it is followed by a small minority of the population.
What are the major languages spoken in India?
The major languages spoken in India are Hindi, English, Bengali, Marathi, Telugu, Tamil, Urdu, Gujarati, and Kannada. Hindi is the Official Language of India, and it is the most widely spoken language in the country. English is the second-official language of India, and it is widely used in government and business. Bengali is the third-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of West Bengal. Marathi is the fourth-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of Maharashtra. Telugu is the fifth-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of Andhra Pradesh. Tamil is the sixth-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of Tamil Nadu. Urdu is the seventh-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of Jammu and Kashmir. Gujarati is the eighth-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of Gujarat. Kannada is the ninth-most spoken language in India, and it is the official language of the state of Karnataka.
What are the major exports of India?
The major exports of India are petroleum products, gems and jewelry, engineering goods, pharmaceuticals, and textiles. Petroleum products are the most valuable export of India, and they account for around 15% of the country’s total exports. Gems and jewelry are the second-most valuable export of India, and they account for around 10% of the country’s total exports. Engineering goods are the third-most valuable export of India, and they account for around 8% of the country’s total exports. Pharmaceuticals are the fourth-most valuable export of India, and they account for around 7% of the country’s total exports. Textiles are the fifth-most valuable export of India, and they account for around 6% of the country’s total exports.
What are the major imports of India?
The major imports of India are crude oil, gold, electronic goods, coal, and iron Ore. Crude oil is the most valuable import of India, and it accounts for around 20% of the country’s total imports. Gold is the second-most valuable import of India, and it accounts for around 10% of the country’s total imports. Electronic goods are the third-most valuable import of India, and they account for around 8% of the country’s total imports. Coal is the fourth-most valuable import of India, and it accounts for around 7% of the country’s total imports. Iron ore is the fifth-most valuable import of India, and it accounts for around 6% of the country’s total imports.
The Indian Councils Act of 1861 provided for the following:
(a) The establishment of a Legislative Council at the Centre and Legislative Councils in the provinces.
(b) The expansion of the Executive Councils at the Centre and the provinces.
(c) The introduction of indirect Elections to the Legislative Councils.
(d) All of the above.
The Indian Councils Act of 1892 provided for the following:
(a) The expansion of the Legislative Councils at the Centre and the provinces.
(b) The introduction of direct elections to the Legislative Councils.
(c) The increase in the number of elected members in the Legislative Councils.
(d) All of the above.
The Indian Councils Act of 1909, also known as the Morley-Minto Reforms, provided for the following:
(a) The introduction of separate electorates for Muslims.
(b) The introduction of diarchy at the provincial level.
(c) The increase in the number of elected members in the Legislative Councils.
(d) All of the above.
The Government of India Act of 1919, also known as the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms, provided for the following:
(a) The introduction of dyarchy at the provincial level.
(b) The transfer of certain subjects to the control of the provincial legislatures.
(c) The establishment of a Federal Court.
(d) All of the above.
The Government of India Act of 1935, also known as the Act of 1935, provided for the following:
(a) The establishment of a federal government at the Centre.
(b) The transfer of all subjects except defence and foreign affairs to the control of the provincial legislatures.
(c) The introduction of provincial autonomy.
(d) All of the above.
The Indian Independence Act of 1947 provided for the following:
(a) The partition of India into India and Pakistan.
(b) The transfer of power from the British to the Indian and Pakistani governments.
(c) The establishment of the Dominion of India and the Dominion of Pakistan.
(d) All of the above.
The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950. It provides for the following:
(a) A parliamentary system of government.
(b) A Federal System of Government.
(c) A Secular State.
(d) All of the above.
The President of India is the head of state. He/She is elected by an electoral college consisting of the members of both Houses of Parliament and the legislative assemblies of the states. The President holds office for a term of five years.
The Prime Minister of India is the head of government. He/She is appointed by the President and is responsible to the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament. The Prime Minister holds office as long as he/she enjoys the confidence of the Lok Sabha.
The Parliament of India is a bicameral legislature consisting of the Rajya Sabha, the upper house, and the Lok Sabha, the lower house. The Rajya Sabha has 250 members, of whom 12 are nominated by the President and 238 are elected by the legislative assemblies of the states and the Union Territories. The Lok Sabha has 545 members, of whom 543 are elected directly by the people and two are nominated by the President from the Anglo-Indian community.
The Supreme Court of India is the highest court in the country. It has a chief justice and 30 other judges. The Supreme Court has original jurisdiction in cases involving disputes between the Centre and the states, between the states, and between citizens of different states. It also has Appellate Jurisdiction in cases decided by the high courts.
The high courts are the highest courts in the states. Each state has a High Court, except for the states of Jammu and Kashmir and Nagaland, which have separate high courts for their respective regions. The high courts have original jurisdiction in cases involving disputes between the State Government and its citizens, and between citizens of the same state. They also have appellate jurisdiction in cases decided by the lower courts.
The lower courts are the courts of first instance. They have original jurisdiction in cases involving disputes between individuals, and between individuals and the government.
The Indian legal system is based on the common law system. The common law is a body of law that has developed over time through judicial decisions. It is based on the principle of stare decisi